
fJass SJ B 9 -3 

CiffimiGHT DEPOSm 



FARM HORTICULTURE 

PREPARED ESPECIALLY FOR 

THOSE INTERESTED IN EITHER HOME 
OR COMMERCIAL HORTICULTURE 



BY. ^^ 

GEORGE WrHOOD, M.Sc. 

ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR OF HORTICULTURE IN THE UNIVERSITY OF NEBRASKA 



SECOND EDITION, THOROUGHLY REVISED 
•ffUustratcO witb 144 BngravinQs 




LEA & FEBIGER 

PHILADELPHIA AND NEW YORK 
1921 






Copyright 

LEA & FEBIGER 

1921 



JAN 17 1921 



g)aA608043 



PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION. 



That ''Farm Horticulture" has met the need for which 
it was created, is shown by the popularity which it has 
enjoyed and which has exhausted the first edition in little 
over a year from the date of original publication. It is 
especially gratifying to the author that this demand has 
come largely from agricultural high schools and colleges, as 
it is an indication of, the permanent worth of the book and 
its establishment in the educational system of the country. 
Such revision has been made as was necessary after so short 
a lapse of time, and new material has been incorporated 
wherever it seemed possible to add to the value of the work 
or increase its utility. A few chapters did not treat their 
respective subjects as fully as they merited and these chapters 
have been lengthened so as to make them better serve their 
purpose. Some rearrangement of the subject matter has 
also been made so that it should conform more closely to the 
usual method of teaching Horticulture. In some chapters 
additional material has been included, where conditions 
have changed and experience has demonstrated that the 
subject was not discussed at sufficient length. 

It has been the aim of the author in preparing this work to 
bring together the most important facts dealing with the 
general principles underlying Horticulture. The book is 
primarily an elementary text, so arranged and developed 
as to meet the needs of the student as well as those who are 
practicing Horticulture. Many teachers of Elementary 
Agriculture and Horticulture have found it suitable as a 
text and it is hoped that the revised edition will better meet 
their needs. It is thought that the average family inter- 



IV PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION 

estecl in Horticulture can use it as a guide to grow their 
plants successfully. 

The object of the book is to give a brief discussion and to 
supply information on some of the important subjects in 
Horticulture. The field is large and only the most important 
phases of the subject are considered, but it is thought that 
some information relative to those practices which many 
people desire and which cannot be found in any single text, 
is well worth the effort put forth in this revised edition. In 
view of the fact that the work treats the subject from the 
standpoint of production of Horticultural products as well 
as the improvement of the home, it has proved valuable to 
those who are interested in the subject. 

The author is indebted to the following, and takes this 
opportunity to express his appreciation to Professors Mel- 
ville T. Cook, New Jersey Agricultural Experiment Station; 
A. L. Quaintance, U. S. Department of x\griculture; Donald 
Reddick, Cornell University; H. C. Thompson, Cornell 
University; F. H. Ballou, Ohio Agricultural Experiment 
Station, and W. H. Wicks, U. S. Department of Agriculture, 
for the figures for which they are credited in the text. 

Acknowledgement is also due the R. M. Kellogg Co., of 
Three Rivers, Michigan, the Bateman Manufacturing Co., 
and the International Harvester Company for furnishing 
photographs and illustrations, for which due credit is given 
under each figure. 

The author wishes to express his appreciation to Professors 
R. F. Howard, University of Nebraska and J. R. Cooper, 
formerly of the University of Nebraska, for reading and 
criticising the manuscript and for the many valuable sugges- 
tions which they offered. He also wishes to thank all others 
who contributed in any way to the work and to whom it is 
hoped due credit has been given in every case. 

G. W. H. 



CONTENTS 



CHAPTER I. 

Planning the Home Garden 17 

CHAPTER II. 
The Seed and its Needs 38 

CHAPTER HI. 
Hot-bed and Cold Frame 55 

CHAPTER IV. 
Cultivation and Tillage 67 

CHAPTER V. 
Plant Propagation 79 

CHAPTER VI. . 
Budding and Grafting 95 

CHAPTER VII. 
The Pests of Cultivated Plants 112 



vi CONTENTS 

CHAPTER VIII. 
Spray Machinery and Spray Materials 129 

CHAPTER IX. 

The Pruning of Plants 147 

CHAPTER X. 
Har^'t:sting and Marketing 159 

CHAPTER XL 
Winter Protection of Plants 173 

CHAPTER XII. 
The Strawberry 182 

CHAPTER XIII. 
Bush Fruits 196 

CHAPTER XIV. 
The Brambles 208 

' CHAPTER XV. 
The Grape 220 

CHAPTER XVI. 
The Pome Fruits 237 



CONTENTS vii 

CHAPTER XVII. 
The Stone Fkuits 267 

CHAPTER XVIII. 
The Citrus Fruits 298 

CHAPTER XIX. 
Beautifying the Home Grounds 317 

Appendix 332 



FARM HOETICULTURE, 



CHAPTER I. 
PLANNING THE HOME GARDEN. 

There are two distinct kinds of horticulture, amateur 
and commercial. In amateur horticulture the primary 
object is to supply the home table with vegetables and fruits 
and to furnish ornamental flowers for the decoration and the 
beautification of the home and grounds surrounding the 
home. An ample supply in all divisions is essential. In 
commercial horticulture, however, the object is much 
different. For this field the grower selects one phase of 
horticulture, and specializes in it, growing the specialty on a 
large scale to supply the community in which he lives. In 
the commercial field the assortment might be either large 
or small and consist of only one vegetable, fruit or orna- 
mental. 

Horticulture for the home is exceedingly important, and 
by its adoption one makes a good start for a successful and 
happy life 

Laying Out the Garden. — In order to succeed well with any 
undertaking, one must first have a definite and a well- 
formulated plan to follow. A plan is essential in the home 
garden as well as in any other line of work, and a well-designed 
plan that will be readily understood is indispensable. To draw 
a garden plan the grower should first secure a piece of paper, 
which must of necessity vary in size and in shape, according 
to the size of the garden, and the unit of measure which is 
adopted. The plan should be drawn to a definite scale. 
2 



18 PLANNING THE HOME GARDEN 

This scale is called the unit of measure. The unit of measure 
furnishes the proper proportions and represents the exact 
number of feet of ground the garden is to occupy and the 
distance between the rows of plants. For example, the 
drawing of the garden plan on the paper must necessarily 
be smaller than the garden, and therefore we must have what 
is known as the reducing unit, or scale. If the scale in which 
one-fourth of an inch equals one foot is used, then one-fourth 
of an inch on the paper will represent one foot on the ground. 
If the garden is twenty by thirty feet, then to reduce it to 
the scale in which one-fourth of an inch equals one foot the 
size of the paper would have to be six by eight inches. If the 
garden is one hundred by one hundred and fifty feet, the 
paper must be twenty-five by thirty-eight inches. The sizes 
indicated are the exact sizes the paper must be to draw 
the garden, but in all plans a larger size should always be 
secured to allow for an inch or two of margin. If the garden 
space is large, one-eighth-inch scale can be used, which 
means that for every one-eighth of an inch on the paper 
there must be one foot on the ground. By making use of 
the unit of measure the rows of vegetables and fruits can be 
located in their proper places. In using the reducing scale 
the grower must always remember that for each linear 
foot in the garden, he must use one unit of measure, say one- 
fourth inch or one-eighth inch on the paper. 

Location of the Garden. — In selecting the site for the garden, 
several important points should be considered: (1) The 
garden should be located conveniently close to the kitchen, 
and since it is considered as a part of the kitchen equipment, 
it should necessarily be in close proximity to the objective 
point. (2) The soil, when possible, should be a sandy loam, 
but when this is out of the question and it is a heavy clay, 
it should be improved by adding well-rotted manure, sand, 
sifted cinders, etc. (3) A gentle slope to the south or south- 
east should be selected when this is possible. A sunny 
slope dries off and warms up earlier in the spring and makes 
planting possible earlier than if the ground sloped to the 
north. It is also more pleasant to work on a southern 
exposure. A slope also gives the garden good air drainage, 



SIZE OF THE GARDEN . 19 

because cold air is heavier than warm air and it settles to 
the lower levels, therefore less danger is experienced from 
frost. Avoid too steep a slope, one with a fall of about 
four or five feet to the hundred is good. A gentle slope 
provides good soil drainage, which is important, because 
neither fruit nor vegetables can thrive with wet feet. Hor- 
ticultural crops which are grown slowly on poorly drained 
land often become very irregular and gnarled in shape and 
poor in quality. Fruit trees are more liable to split under 
the strain of wind and other agencies on a poor soil than on a 
well-drained piece of land,and many gardens are a disappoint- 
ment to the owner, chiefly because they are not well-drained. 
(4) A good supply of water should,, be available for irrigation 
when it is needed. An immense quuntity of water is required 
at certain seasons of the year and the value of irrigation 
should not be overlooked. (5) Exposed locations should 
be protected by wind-breaks. Every experienced fruit and 
vegetable grower is familiar with the advantages of a wind- 
break. They are especially valuable in the protection of the 
cucurbits, such as the cucumber, the squash, etc., and the 
small fruits, such as raspberries, strawberries and black- 
berries. Windbreaks are of two kinds, natural and artificial. 
A common practice is to construct an artificial wind-break, 
such as a fence, which serves the purpose fairly well, although 
natural wind-breaks, such as hedges of conifers, are more 
attractive and more economical when once they are estab- 
lished. . . 1 

Size of the Garden.— The space a garden occupies is largely 
determined by the number of individuals in the family. The 
garden should be the minimum size that will produce a suffi- 
cient supply of vegetables and fruits for home consumption. 
The dimensions of the garden will also depend upon the indi- 
vidual preference for the different kinds of vegetables and 
fruits, the season of the year, the fertility of the soil, the 
amount of land available, as well as the intensiveness of the 
methods which are followed. The size will necessarily vary 
with each family, and it should be determined in each case 
by trial. Always plan to use the most intensive methods 
of cultivation because this practice will make the garden 



20 PLANNING THE HOME GARDEN 

occupy the smallest possible space, as well as to reduce the 
factor of labor. 

Arrangement of the Plants. — In determining the position 
of the vegetables and the fruits in the garden it is advisable 
to have the small fruits, such as grapes, raspberries, black- 
berries, dewberries, currants, gooseberries and strawberries, 
placed along one side of the garden, usually in the order 
named, with the grapes forming one border. The perennial 
vegetables, such as the rhubarb and the asparagus, can usually 
find a place between the gooseberries and the strawberries, 
because the land they occupy is not plowed up each season. 
It is an advantage to place the rows the same distance apart 
when it is possible. The small, short-season crops, such as 
lettuce, radishes and onions, should be grouped together, 
thus enabling the gardener to soon clear that land, so that a 
second crop can be planted. The long-season crops, such as 
the tomatoes, cucurbits, corn etc., which occupy the ground 
for a longer time, should be grouped in one place, thus avoid- 
ing the mixing up of the early and the late crops. Suggestive 
plans offered on the following pages will aid in simplifying 
the arrangement and the location of the vegetables and the 
fruits. 

In recommending the amount of seed to plant in the garden, 
as well as the distance apart the plants should stand, only 
suggestive amounts of seeds and arbitrary distances can be 
given, since local factors and different conditions alter cases. 
It is assumed that a large share of the cultivation which 
is given to the farm garden will be done with horse imple- 
ments. This, of course, necessitates a less intensive plan. 
In the suburban garden the cultivation will be performed 
with hand implements, such as the hand cultivators, etc., 
and the plants can be grown closer together and a more 
intensive system of planting followed. The city garden 
should be the most intensive of the three gardens. In the 
city gardens practically all of the work is done by hand, with 
such tools as the hand hoe, rake, trowel, etc. The plants 
are all given more individual attention. Such plants as the 
tomatoes are pruned and staked, thus allowing a greater 
number of plants to a given space. 



ARRANGEMENT OF THE PLANTS 



21 



TABLE 


I.— DISTANCE TO PLANT VEGETABLES. 






Farm garden. 


Suburban garden. 


City garden. 




Distance 

between 

rows, 

inches. 


Distance 
between 
plants 
in row, 
inches. 


Distance 

between 

rows, 

inches. 


Distance 

between 

plants 

in row, 

inches. 


Distance 

between 

rows, 

inches. 


Distance 

between 

plants 

in row, 

inches. 


Beans (string) 


24 


4-6 


18 


4-6 


15 


4-6 


Beans (Lima) 


30 


6-8 


24 


6-8 






Beets . . . . 


24 


3 


18 


3 


15 


3 


Cabbage (early) . 


24 


16 


24 


16 


24 


16 


Cabbage (medium) 


24 


24 


24 


24 






Cabbage (late) 


30 


24 


30 


24 


24 


24 


Carrots 


24 


3 


24 


3 


15 


3 


Cauliflower 


30 


24 


30 


24 






Celery .... 


48 


6 


48 


6 






Chard .... 


24 


6 


18 


6 


15 


6 


Sweet corn (early) 


30 


24 


30 


24 






Sweet corn (me- 














dium) 


30 


30 










Sweet corn (late) . 


36 


30 


30 


30 






Cucumber 


60 


12 


60 


12 






Egg plant . 


30 


24 


24 


24 






Lettuce 


24 


12 


18 


10 


8 


6 


Melon (musk) 


60 


15 


60 


15 






Melon (water) 


60 


24 










Onion seed 


18 


5 


18 


5 


12 


4 


Onion sets 




18 


3 


18 


3 


12 


3 


Parsley 




.24 


6 


24 


6 


18 


6 


Peas . . 




30 


6 


30 


6 






Peppers 




30 


24 


30 


24 


24 


24 


Potatoes . 




30 


12 


30 


12 






Radishes . 




18 


5 


18 


3 


12 


3 


Squash 




60 


24 


60 


24 






Tomatoes . 




48 


48 


36 


24 


24 


24 



TABLE II. — ^DISTANCE TO SET PERENNIAL PLANTS AND 
SMALL FRUITS. 







Farm garden. 


Suburban garden. 


City garden. 




Distance 

between 

rows, 

inches. 


Distance 

between 

plants 

in row, 

inches. 


Distance 

between 

rows, 

inches. 


Distance 
between 
plants 
in row, 
inches. 


Distance 

between 

rows, 

inches. 


Distance 
between 
plants 
in row, 
inches. 


Asparagus 

Blackberries 

Currants . 

Gooseberries 

Grapes 

Horseradish 

Raspberries 

Rhubarb . 

Strawberries 




36 

72 
60 
60 
120 
24 
72 
36 
36 


12 
48 
48 
48 
96 
12 
36 
24 
12 


36 

48 
48 
96 
24 
60 
24 
36 


12 

48 
48 
96 
12 
36 
24 
12 


36 

48 
48 

24 
24 


12 

36 
36 

24 
12 



22 



PLANNING THE HOME GARDEN 



TABLE III. — THE AMOUNT OF SEED TO PLANT IN THE 
GARDEN. 



Farm garden. 



Suburban 
garden. 



City garden. 



Beans (string) . 

Beans (Lima) . 

Beets .... 

Cabbage (early) 

Cabbage (medium) 

Cabbage (late) . 

Carrots 

Cauliflower 

Celery .... 

Chard .... 

Sweet corn (early) 

Sweet corn (medium) 

Sweet corn (late) . 

Cucumber . 

Egg plant . 

Lettuce 

Mustard 

Muskmelon 

Watermelon 

Onion seed 

Onion sets . 

Parsley .... 

Peas (early) 

Peas (medium) 

Peas (late) . 

Peppers 

Potatoes 

Radish .... 

Rhubarb 

Spinach 

Squash (summer) . 

Squash (winter) 

Sweet potatoes 

Tomatoes . 



1 
1 
2 
1 
1 
1 
1 
1 
1 
1 
1 
1 
1 
1 
1 
1 
1 
1 
1 
2 
2 
1 
1 
1 
1 
1 
1 
3 
36 
1 
1 
1 
250 
200 



quart 

pint 

ounces 

packet 

packet 

packet 

ounce 

packet 

ounce 

packet 

pint 

pint 

pint 

ounce 

packet 

ounce 

packet 

ounce 

ounce 

ounces 

quarts 

packet 

quart 

quart 

quart 

packet 

bushel 

ounces 

plants 

ounce 

ounce 

ounce 

plants 

plants 



1 pint 
i pint 
1 ounce 
1 packet 
1 packet 
1 packet 
1 packet 
1 packet 
1 packet 
1 packet 
^ pint 

None 
h pint 
1 ounce 
12 plants 
1 packet 
1 packet 
1 packet 
None 



1 quart 

1 packet 

1 pint 

1 pint 

1 pint 

24 plants 

J bushel 

1 ounce 

24 plants 

1 ounce 

1 packet 

1 packet 

None 

50 plants 



h pint 
None 
1 ounce 
12 plants 
None 
12 plants 
1 packet 
None 
None 
1 packet 
None 
None 
None 
1 packet 
12 plants 
1 packet 
1 packet 
None 
None 
1 packet 
1 pint 
12 plants 
None 
None 
None 
6 plants 
None 
1 ounce 
6 plants 
1 packet 
None 
None 
None 
12 plants 



TABLE IV. — THE NUMBER OF PERENNIAL PLANTS 
SMALL FRUITS TO SET. 



AND 





Farm garden. 


Subiirban 
garden. 


City garden. 


Asparagus 


100 plants 


50 plants 


25 plants 


Blackberries 


50 




25 " 




Currants 


25 




15 " 


6 " 


Grapes 


15 




5 " 




Gooseberries 


20 




10 " 


6 " 


Horseradish 


12 




12 " 




Raspberries 


50 




25 " 


. 


Rhubarb 


25 




12 " 


6 " 


Strawberries 


400 " 


200 " 


100 " 



MANURES AND FERTILIZERS 23 

Preparation of the Garden Soil.— Soil preparation for the 
garden depends upon the nature and the kind of soil with 
which you have to deal. The heavy, stiff clay soils should 
be plowed in the fall, because the action of the frost during 
the winter will break up the soil into fine particles and render 
it more suitable for planting. The fall plowing also adds more 
moisture to the soil. The snow and rain which fall durmg 
the winter and the early spring months lodge in the crevices 
and rough furrows and gradually melt and soak into the 
ground, .thus saving a large amount of moisture which other- 
wise would run off and be lost. 

Fall plowing of light sandy soils is not so important. In 
fact in windy sections of the country it is not advisable to 
fall plow loose sandy ground, because a large part of the 
surface soil will be blown away. However, in those sections 
where winds do not exist fall plowing is recommended because 
it reduces the spring work and many plants can be set 

In all cases where fall plowing is not practical early spring 
plowing should be the rule. Sandy soils will bear plowing 
much earlier than heavy, clay soils, because the loose soils dry 
out faster than the stiff, compact types, as the clays. ^ 

Deep plowing should invariably be the rule. In fact, it is 
a question whether it is possible to have too deep a seed-bed, 
especially if good cultural methods are practised. A seed- 
bed from 8 to 10 inches deep is satisfactory and should be 
the aim of all growers of garden produce. 

Manures and Fertilizers.— The best fertilizer that can be 
given to the garden is barnyard manure. This material 
not only adds plant food but supplies much organic matter 
and finallv produces humus. When there is plenty of water 
available,*^ either natural or artificial, you cannot spread too 
much manure on your garden. A longer time will be required 
to decay and make available the plant food in all manures 
that have large amounts of straw or litter present, and a 
greater amount of water will be necessary to reduce them. 

Barnyard manures should usually be spread on the garden 
during the early fall and turned under as soon as the soil is 
covered. The ground should be left rough and not harrowed 



24 PLANNING THE HOME GARDEN 

or raked. This practice prevents the water from running 
off and aids in the breaking down of the manures which 
makes them more available to the plants the following 
season. When fall plowing is not practised the manure 
should be spread out evenly on the ground during the autumn 
or winter and then turned under as early in the spring as 
the ground can be plowed. 

Commercial fertilizers are valuable in certain sections of 
the country either to use alone or in combination with barn- 
yard manures. When commercial fertilizers are employed 
alone some means of adding humus or organic matter to the 
soil must be provided. Green manure crops, such as clover, 
cow peas, soy beans, rye and several more are usually grown 
and^^then plowed under to add the needed organic matter. 
As a rule it requires some experience in handling commercial 
fertilizers to receive the most good from their use. When the 
use of commercial fertilizers is considered a very important 
item to investigate is the relative cost of the materials. 
During the past few years the ingredients which make up a 
complete commercial fertilizer, namely, nitrogen, phosphate 
and potash, have been very high and in many cases they 
have been prohibitive. The nitrogen and potash are the 
most expensive, although phosphates are relatively inexpen- 
sive and in many cases phosphates can be used . 

There can be no definite rule given as to the amount of 
commercial fertilizer that should be applied. This varies 
with each crop and every type of soil. The amount of water 
available also determines the amount of fertilizer that can 
be used. In most cases, however, it is usually safe to apply 
from 1000 to 2000 pounds to the acre, providing plenty of 
humus is present and good cultural methods are practised. 

Succession, Companion and Rotation Planting. — To make 
a garden yield the maximum quantity of vegetables it is 
necessary to have the land occupied practically all of the 
time during the growing season. This practice is made pos- 
sible in vegetable planting because we have in this group 
short, medium and long season plants as well as cool weather 
and warm weather plants. It therefore becomes an easy 
matter to select certain plants and so group and arrange 



SUCCESSION, COMPANION AND ROTATION PLANTING 25 

them so that we can make the ground grow some plants all 
during the season. In order to accomplish this we practise 
what is known as succession and companion planting. 

By succession planting we mean that one crop follows 
another on the same ground and in the same season, as, for 
example, early lettuce or radishes followed by string beans. 
The secret to successful succession planting then is to select 
two or three crops so that the combined growing season of 
all will be equal to the growing season of the year. This 
usually includes the selection of some early cool weather 
crop followed by some medium season warm weather 
crop that will mature before frost. In this way we 
grow two or more crops from the same ground and have 
no waste space in the garden to become a weed patch or an 




Fig. 1. — Several crops which illustrate companion planting. 



eyesore. Great care must be exercised in selecting the proper 
group of plants, so that they all have sufficient time to 
mature their crop and still have no vacant space during the 
growing season. 

Companion planting differs from succession planting in 
that two or more crops occupy the same ground at the 
same time. This is sometimes called double cropping. The 
secret to this practice is close planting wdth plants that will 
grow easily together, so that one kind is removed as it 
matures and before it crowds the other plants. Three vege- 
tables which illustrate this planting are radishes, lettuce 
and cabbage. The principle on which this operates is the 
selection of early short-season crops which are planted 
between the rows of mediUm or long season ones. The early 
plants soon mature and are removed, and in no way interrupt 



26 PLANNING THE HOME GARDEN 

the growth of the other plants. Oftentimes certain plants 
will grow as companion plants throughout the life of both, 
as, for example, pole beans and pumpkins grown with sweet 
corn. These plants adapt themselves to each other's company 
and will produce profitable crops in this way. A companion 
crop, then, might be defined as a plant which associates with 
another plant for a certain portion of its life. 

Rotation of plants is more or less common and differs from 
succession and companion planting in that two years are 
required for its operation while only one season is necessary 
for the other two systems. When we rotate a crop we mean 
that we follow one crop with another different one the 
following season. 

Vegetables Grown for Their Roots. — ^The root crops include 
some of our most important vegetables. These plants are 
grown for their underground parts. In most cases it is the 
developed root of the plant, although in the case of the Irish 
potato it is the enlarged stem. 

The conditions necessary for the growth of the root crops 
are similar, and while there are special requirements for 
certain ones a few general conditions are common to all. 
In the first place, all root crops do the best when they are 
grow^n on a light sandy soil. This is due to the fact that the 
edible part, being a root, must enlarge sufficiently to produce 
food. Since the soil offers resistance to the growth of an 
enlarged root it is always advisable to select those soils 
which offer the least resistance to the rapid expansion of the 
underground part. 

A deep, well-pulverized seed-bed is also necessary for all 
underground crops. This allows the parts to enlarge with 
the least resistance. In such plants as the parsnip, carrot 
and salsify, that develop long roots, it is especially desirable 
that the seed-bed be deep because knotty, crooked roots will 
develop if the root strikes a hard pan that hinders its down- 
ward growth. Another detrimental factor that is often found 
on such plants where growth is restricted by heavy soils is 
the development of many small fibrous roots over the surface 
of the large root. This makes the product unsightly, of 
inferior quality and reduces its value. 



VEGETABLES GROWN FOR THEIR FRUIT AND SEED 27 

Practically all of the root crops, with the possible exception 
of the sweet potato, do the best in a cool moist climate. 
Therefore, to grow the best root crops they should be either 
planted in sections of the country that have these conditions 
or during the seasons that have a suitable climate. As a 
rule, then, these crops are grown as early spring or fall crops, 
thus making use of the climate that best suits their develop- 
ment. 

Vegetables Grown for Their Foliage. — This class of vegetables 
consists of such plants as the lettuce, spinach, cabbage, 
brussels sprouts, kale and many more. The edible parts of 
this class consists principally of the leaves and stems. The 
requirements for this group are somewhat varied. A few 
general conditions are common to all. The best quality is 
invariably produced when these plants are grown rapidly 
and liberally supplied with moisture. Plenty of water, 
together with sufficient plant food, causes rapid development, 
which produces brittle, crisp leaves. Slow growth and lack 
of moisture make a tough, stringy product of poor quality. 

The soil requirements are varied. As a rule the group 
is more or less cosmopolitan, growing on either heavy or 
light soils. The lighter soils produce earlier plants while 
the heavier soils will usually grow larger amounts. 

The uses of this group are many. Some plants are used 
as salads, others for garnishing and a few as potherbs. Many 
of them are eaten raw while a few are cooked. This class is 
very important and serves a variety of purposes. 

Vegetables Grown for Their Fruit and Seed. — ^The vegetables 
included in this group are those grown for either their fruit 
or their seed. A few of the most common ones are the bean, 
pea, sweet corn, cucumber, melon, squash, egg-plant, tomato 
and some others. This group includes some of our most 
valuable food plants. The dried beans and peas are highly 
nutritious and should be found in every garden. In addition 
to the high food value found in this group, we also have some 
of the most palatable and the finest flavored fruits. There is 
perhaps nothing that can equal a fine sweet musk melon 
or a juicy watermelon, while the sweet corn, tomato and 
cucumber have no rival in their class. 



28 PLANNING THE HOME GARDEN 

The general requirements for the plants of this group must 
necessarily vary greatly. With the exception of the pea, 
which is a cool weather plant, all of the remaining members 
of this group are warm weather plants and thrive best during 
the warmer part of the growing season. The group also has 
both short and long season plants. In fact, the tomato, egg- 
plant and pepper must frequently be started in a hot-bed 
in order to have them mature their crops, in some sections 
of the country with a comparatively short growing season. 
With the possible exception of the pea the remaining plants 
of this group are all tender and must be planted after danger 
of frost is past. 

The soil should be well prepared and fertile. A sandy 
loam will perhaps best serve the need of the greater number 
in this group, although they are not averse to the heavy types 
of soil. Plenty of plant food and humus should be provided 
and the plants should be kept constantly growing. A check 
in growth not only reduces the yield but materially injures 
the quality of some of the finer flavored vegetables. 

The uses of these vegetables are varied. In fact, they 
constitute the vegetables that are found on our tables every 
day in the year. Many of these, particularly the peas, beans, 
corn and tomato-, are staple canned goods and always in 
demand. The beans and peas are both canned and sold in a 
dry state, while the melons are used only in the fresh state 
and occupy an important place as delicacies in their season. 
As a class this group is exceedingly important and one that 
we could not well do without. 

Fig. 2 gives a suggestive plan for the arrangement of a 
home garden 25 by 30 feet. This garden is designed for the 
back end of a city lot, in which only one-half of the yard is 
available for the growing of fresh vegetables. It is primarily 
for a small family. This arrangement will permit the use of a 
hand cultivator, which can be operated to good advantage. 
In case the grower does not own an implement of this type, 
the ordinary hand hoe will answer the purpose. 

This plan only includes a few vegetables, but they will 
meet with approval on anyone's table, and at the same time 
will give a sufficient variety so as not to become monoto- 



VEGETABLES GROWN FOR THEIR FRUIT AND SEED 29 

nous. The rows should run the long way of the garden, and 
where it is possible the garden should be arranged so that 
the rows will run north and soUth, although if this is impos- 
sible no serious drawbacks will be experienced if the rows 
run in the opposite directions. 



zo 


no 

QCD 


PLAN OF GARDEN 

25' by 30' 
Scale 1" = 10' 


1 


IY2 


RADISHES 


iVi 


LETTUCE FOLLOWED BY LATE CABBAGE 


2 


1^2 


ONIONS 


3 


1/a' 


SPRING TURNIPS FOLLOWED BY LATE CAULIFLOWER 


4 


I'/a' 


BEETS 


a 


1^2' 


GREEN BEANS FOLLOWED BY LATE CABBAGE 


6 

8 
9 
10 
11 
12 
13 
U 


1^/2' 


WAX BEANS 


2' 


CABBAGE FOLLOWED BY ENDIVE 


2' 


r. 
EARLY PEAS FOLLOWED BY LATE BUSH BEANS 


2' 


EARLY PEAS FOLLOWED BY LATE BUSH BEANS 


2' 


BUSH LIMA BEANS 


2' 


BUSH LIMA BEANS 


2' 


TOMATOES 


2' 


SWEET PEPPERS EGG PLANT 

e • ' 




P$ 


30^ -> 



YiG. 2. — A city vegetable garden, 25 by 30 feet. 

In certain sections of the country, where the rainfall will 
permit, or where water for irrigation or sprinkling can be 
supplied, lettuce and green beans can be followed by late 
cabbage, the early peas can be followed by late bush beans, 
turnips by cauliflower and cabbage by endive. This arrange- 
ment makes a more intensive form of horticulture and keeps 
the ground occupied all of the growing season. 

Heavy applications of stable manure should be applied 
every fall if the highest yields are to be expected. 



30 



PLANNING THE HOME GARDEN 



Fig. 3 gives a tentative arrangement for a city vegetable 
garden 25 by 40 feet. This garden is designed to be some- 
what more permanent in nature, and to occupy the 25 feet 



is 

go 


lij z 
1- > o 

e? LU "^ 


PLAN OF GARDEN 

25' by 40' 
Scale 1"= 10' 


1 

2 
3 
4 
5 
6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

13 

14 

15 




LEAF LETTUCE FOLLOWED BY BEANS 




HEAD LETTUCE 


1' 


ONION SETS FOLLOWED BY BEANS 


1' 


ONION SEED 


1' 


ONION SEED 


1' 


RADISHES FOLLOWED BY BEANS 


IVa 


EARLY BEETS FOLLOWED BY RADISHES . 


1/2' 


CARROTS 


1/2 


PARSNIPS 


1/2' 


WAX BEANS FOLLOWED BY FALL RADISHES 


1/2 


GREEN BEANS FOLLOWED BY LEAF LETTUCE 


IV2' 


EARLY PEAS FOLLOWED BY ENDIVE 


1^2' 


EARLY PEAS FOLLOWED BY ENDIVE 


2' 


EARLY TOMATOES 


2' 


LATE TOMATOES 


16 


2' 


LATE TOMATOES 


17 
18 


2' 


LATE CABBAGE 


2' 


LATE CABBAGE 


19 


2' 


LATE CABBAGE 


20 


3' 


RHUBARB 


21 
22 
23 


3' 


CURRANTS GOOSEBERRIES 


3' 


ASPARAGUS 


3' 


ASPARAGUS 







■25 



Fig. 3. — A city vegetable garden, 25 by 40 feet. 



on the lower end of a city lot that is 40 feet in width. The 
first two rows include asparagus, the third, two plants of the 



VEGETABLES GROWN FOR THEIR FRUIT AND SEED 31 

gooseberry and two plants of the currant, and the fourth 
rhubarb which can be protected in the winter and forced 
in the spring by banking with manure or with straw. The 
garden should be arranged so that the rows will run north 
and south when possible, but this will be determined largely 
by the way in which the lot faces. 

In regions where the rainfall is sufficient, or where irriga- 
tion is possible, lettuce, onions and radishes can be followed 
by bush-beans; early beans and beets can be followed by late 
radishes and lettuce; and early peas by late endive. Where 
the tomatoes are staked the plants can be set two feet apart 
each way; where they are not staked or pruned they must 
be planted four feet apart each way. 

Fig. 4 illustrates a city vegetable garden 30 by 60 feet. 
This garden is planned for the back end of a city lot or for 
one side of a lot that can be devoted to the growing of 
economic plants. This plan is rather intensive and the selec- 
tion of the vegetables differs from that of Fig. 3. Owing to 
the spacing of the rows, all of the cultivation must be done 
by hand tools, such as hand cultivators, hoes, rakes, etc. 
This plan provides a greater variety of vegetables but less 
in quantity, and it would serve only a small family. 

The asparagus and rhubarb which border one side can 
either be placed along the boundary of the lot or the border 
of the walk. If the latter location is chosen it will serve to 
screen the remainder of the garden from public view. Where 
one row gives too large a quantity of one vegetable the 
row can be divided and two vegetables of a similar growing 
season can be planted. The spinach can be followed by 
cucumbers which will occupy the ground vacated by the 
lettuce, onions, turnips, etc. The early beets can be followed 
by late cabbage, the early lettuce and radishes by late 
celery, the beans by late cabbage and the early sweet corn 
by turnips. The tomatoes should be staked and pruned, 
for the best results, where such an intensive plan is followed. 

Heavy application of stable manure and liberal watering 
will be found to pay well. 

Fig. 5 illustrates a home garden 45 by 50 feet. The selec- 
tion of the different crops in this plan is designed to be 



32 



PLANNING THE HOME GARDEN 



somewhat more permanent. The first three rows are devoted 
to herbaceous perennials and woody plants that will occupy 
the ground for more than one year. In selecting this plan it 



,08 



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liJ 

Q 

cr 

s 



z 

< 

J 

Q. 



SMoa 

N33M13a 
90NVlSia 



Moa JO 

aaaiAinN 



<M CO-* iO«Or-00O5 O —I iM CO ■* >o «D 



VEGETABLES GROWN FOR THEIR FRUIT AND SEED 33 

will be wise to so place the garden that the asparagus, goose- 
berries and currants will occupy a position nearest the border, 
so that they will not be disturbed for several years. This 
plan provides for one portion of the garden to be somewhat 
intensive and the other portion to be somewhat extensive. 



CO O 


LLlz 

"to: 
Qaa 


PLAN OF GARDEN 

45' by 50' 
Scale 1"=16' 


1 

2 
3 

4 


3' 


ASPARAGUS 


3' 


GOOSEBERRIES ^ CURRANTS 


3' 


HERBS ^HORSERADISH ^ RHUBARB 


3' 


RADISHES 


5 

6 

7 
8 


1' 


LETTUCE FOLLOWED BY LATE CABBAGE 


1' 


RADISHES 


1' 


ONION SETS FOLLOWED BY LATE CABBAGE 






1' 


ONION SEEDS 


10 
11 
12 
13 
14 
15 

16 
17 

18 
19 

20 


1^' 


PARSNIPS 


ly/ 


CARROTS 


I'A' 


EARLY CABBAGE 


ly/ 


WAX BEANS FOLLOWED BY CUCUMBERS 


Wz' 


GREEN BEANS 


IM' 


BUSH LIMA BEANS 


ly,' 


EARLY SWEET CORN 


2^' 


LATE SWEET CORN INTERPLANTED WITH PUMPKIN 


2}<2' 


LATE SWEET CORN 


3' 


EARLY TOMATOES 


4' 


LATE TOMATOES 


10' 


WINTER SQUASH 


MELON 




SUMMER SQUASH 



-45- 



FiG. 5. — A city vegetable garden, 45 by 50 feet. 



It also includes many cucurbits, so arranged as to almost 
completely cover the ground during the latter part of the 
growing season. It is advisable to use the hand hoe and 
rake for cultivating this garden. The winter squash, melons, 
pumpkins and the summer squash can either be planted in 
hills 5 feet apart or in rows with the individual plants stand- 
3 



34 



PLANNING THE HOME GARDEN 



ing about one foot apart in the rows. The tomatoes can be 
either staked or allowed to grow without staking. Liberal 
application of stable manure and planty of water is advisable. 



a: > 

Z)LJL 

zo 


UJ z 

< § > 

Q DQ 


PLAN OF GARDEN 

50' by 75' 
Scale 1"= 20' 


4 
5 

6 

7 


ly- 


LETTUCE FOLLOWED BY LATE CORN 


1. 
Q 



X 




RADrSHES 




ONION SETS FOLLOWED BY LATE CORN 




ONION SEED 




ONION SEED 




CARROTS 




PARSNIPS 




SALSIFY 


9 
10 




BEETS 


UJ 

Q 

_J 






GREEN BEANS 




GREEN BEANS FOLLOWED BY SPINACH 


11 
12 
13 

14 

15 




WAX BEANS 


IV 


WAX BEANS FOLLOWED BY CELERY 


3' 


EARLY PEAS FOLLOWED BY CELERY 




EARLY PEAS FOLLOWED BY CELERY 




EARLY CABBAGE FOLLOWED BY PEAS 


■ f 


16 
17 

18 
19 


c 

<— 


',1 

< 




EARLY CABBAGE FOLLOWED BY PEAS 




LATE CABBAGE 




LATE CABBAGE 




EARLY TOMATOES 


21 
22 




LATE TOMATOES 




LATE TOMATOES 




CUCUMBERS 


23 




MUSKMELONS 


24 
25 

26 
27 

28 




cc 




EARLY CORN 




EARLY POTATOES FOLLOWED BY ENDIVE 


g m 
'-I 3 

X 


3' 


EARLY POTATOES FOLLOWED BY ENDIVE 


12' STRAWBERRIES 

CURRANTS GOOSEBERRIES 


2' 



50- 



FiG. 6. — A suburban home garden, 50 by 75 feet. 

Fig. 6 illustrates a suburban home garden 50 by 75 feet. 
This plan is designed to be cultivated by both horse and hand 
implements. However a certain amount of hoeing will be 
found to be valuable. This plan introduces the cold frame 



VEGETABLES GROWN FOR THEIR FRUIT AND SEED 35 

in addition to the hot-bed. It is advisable to construct a 
four-sash hot-bed and a four-sash cold frame. However, 



0= $ 


UJ-Z 

< ^ > 

H g O 

w t; DC 


PLAN OF GARDEN 

100' by 150' 
Scale r'=32' 


1 
9 






6' 


CURRANTS ^ GOOSEBERRIES 


3 
i 
5 


6' 


ASPARAGUS 


3' 


ASPARAGUS 


3' 


RHUBARB 








6 


6' 


HOTBED 


COLD FRAME 


STRAWBERRIES 


7 

8 

9 

10 

11 


3' 


EARLY POTATOES FOLLOWED BY ENDIVE 


3' 


EARLY POTATOES FOLLOWED BY TURNIPS 


3' 


EARLY POTATOES FOLLOWED BY TURNIPS 


3' 


LATE POTATOES 


3' 


LATE POTATOES 


12 
13 
li 

It 


3' 


LATE POTATOES 


3' 


SWEET POTATOES 


3' 


SWEET POTATOES 


3' 


TOMATOES 


Ifi 


3' 


TOMATOES 


17 


3' 


TOMATOES 


1H 


3' 


EARLY SWEET CORN 


19 


3' 


EARLY SWEFT CORN INTERPLANTED WITH HUBBARD SQUASH 


'>0 


3' 


METU EARLY SWEET CORN 


'>1 


y 


LATE SWEET CORN 


?? 


3' 


LATE SWEET CORN 


?3 


3' 


LATE SWEET CORN 


'>1 


3' 


EGG PLANT ^ SWEET PEPPERS 




2' 




no 


2' 






2' 






2' 


MEDIUM EARLY CABBAGE 


OO 


2' 


EARLY CAULIFLOWER 


SO 


6' 


CUCUMBERS 


31 


6' 


MELONS 




2' 




33 


2' 


ONIONS 


3J 


2' 


OtHIONS 


35 


2' 


ONIONS 


;W 




SALSIFY 


37 


2' 


PARSNIPS 




2' 


CARROTS 


39 


2' 


CARROTS 


10 




DRIED BEANS 






DRIED BEANS 




2' 


LATE WAX BEANS 




2' 


WAX BEANS 


44 




MEDIUM EARLY GREEN BEANS 


45 


2' 


EARLY GREEN BEANS FOLLOWED BY LATE CAULIFLOWER 


46 


2' 




47 


2' 


EARLY PEAS FOLLOWED BY LATE CABBAGE 


48 


2' 






2' 


SPINACH FOLLOWED BY LATE CABBAGE 






ONION SETS ■ - 






ONION SETS I?0LL0WEP BY LATE CABBAGE 


^9 




RADISHES 


53 


2' 


HEAD LETTUCE f~. LOOSE LEAF LtTTdCE 


54 


2' 


KOHLRABI ^ 









•100'- 



FiG. 7.— A farm garden 100 by 150 feet. 



36 PLANNING THE HOME GARDEN 

the hotbed space can be made either larger or smaller accord- 
ing to the conditions. In such an event the space devoted 
to the asparagus can either be reduced or extended. In case 
the cold frames are not desired the space can be devoted to 
an outdoor seed-bed, which is of great value. 

The celery must be bleached with either boards, tile or 
paper placed around the plants, because the space is hardly 
sufficient to bank the plants with earth, The late endive 
can follow the potatoes where the growing season is suffi- 
ciently long to permit it to mature. 

The border row should include the currants and goose- 
berries. The strawberries should be planted in rows 2 feet 
apart and the plants 12 inches in the rows. The asparagus 
and rhubarb plants should be set 2 feet apart in the rows 
and the rows 3 feet apart. 

Heavy applications of stable manure should be given to 
the soil every year. 

Fig. 7 illustrates a farm garden 100 by 150 feet. This 
plan provides for the perennial vegetables and small fruits, 
in addition to the annual vegetables. This garden requires 
the use of both the horse and the hand cultivators. The 
space allotment to the hot-bed and the cold frame can be 
either reduced or extended to suit the needs of the individual. 
The early potatoes can be followed by endive and turnips 
and one row of the early sweet corn interplanted with 
hubbard squash. The short season vegetables can be fol- 
lowed with appropriate crops. 

Heavy applications of barnyard manure will be found to 
be of great value, and where it is possible fall plowing is 
advisable. 

REVIEW QUESTIONS. 

1. Define horticulture. What two kinds are practised? 

2. What is amateur and commercial horticulture? 

3. Name three kinds of home vegetable gardens. 

4. What is the basis for this division? 

5. Why is it necessary to first draw a plan of your garden? 

6. What is meant by the unit of measure? 

7. What is meant by a scale? 

8. What determines the scale which should be selected? 

9. Describe the method of laying out a garden on paper. 
10. Discuss the location of a garden. 



REVIEW QUESTIONS 37 

11. What important points must be considered in the selection of the 
garden site? 

12. Why is a gentle southern slope preferable? 

13. What is the proper degree of the slope? Why? 

14. What is the value of a wind-break? How many kinds do we have? 

15. What determines the size of a garden? 

16. Draw a plan of a home garden for the city lot, the suburban lot and 
the farm. 

17. Upon what does the preparation of the garden soil depend? 

18. What is gained by fall plowing? Can all soils be so treated? Discuss. 

19. What is the best fertilizer for the garden? Why? 

20. When and under what conditions should commercial fertilizers be 
used? 

21. Differentiate between succession and companion planting. 

22. How does rotation differ from succession planting? 

23. Name the most important root crops and tell what type of soil is 
best suited to their growth. 

24. Why can the foliage crops be grown on a greater variety of soils than 
the root crops? 

25. Name and discuss the requirements for the vegetables grown for 
their fruits. 



CHAPTER 11. 
THE SEED AND ITS NEEDS. 

The Seed. — The seed is composed of three distinct parts: 
(1) the embryo or vital center, (2) the protective coat, and 
(3) the food materials. The seed is not a lifeless, inert 
structure, as is thought by many, but, contrary to this belief, 
it is definitely known that chemical changes are constantly 
going on within the seed coat. The changes that are known 
to take place are (1) water and carbonic acid gas are given 
off, (2) a variation in the color of the seed, and (3) the food 
materials are undergoing a gradual alteration. 

Germination. — Germination is the process by which an 
embryo develops into a complete plant. It might also be 
defined as the sprouting of a seed. Germination is said to 
be finished when the seedling begins an independent exist- 
ence. There are two distinct stages in the process of germi- 
nation: (1) that marked by the appearance of the rootlets, 
and (2) the subsequent development of the embryo into a 
self-sustaining plant. Since the nourishment for the young 
plant comes wholly from the seed during both stages, the 
second stage in the process is quite as important as the first. 

In addition to the internal changes which go on there are 
three distinct external conditions requisite to germination: 
(1) the proper amount of water, (2) free oxygen or air, and 
(3) an increase in the temperature. 

Water Necessary for Germinatio7i. — ^The amount of water 
required to start the germination of a seed is that quantity 
which will give complete saturation. This varies with the 
seed. The amount of water absorbed also varies greatly 
in the different climates, but it seems to depend upon two 
conditions: (1) the character of the stored food and (2) the 
amount of water already present in the seed. Some seed, 



GERMINATION 



39 



like the leguminous seed, absorb a great amount of water, 
and not infrequently this amount is equal to the weight of 
the seed itself, and in some of the clovers it amounts to 
more than the weight of the seed. 

A second requisite for good germination of a seed is the 
proper amount of water in the soil. The soil should be wet 
but not sticky. The seeds must be in intimate contact with 
the soil at many points and the soil should be fine and com- 
pactly firmed about the seed so the water in the soil can be 
used. In addition to the proper amount of water in the soil 
a warm temperature favors the absorption of water and 
hastens the germination. 




Fig. 



-Longitudinal section of a double seed pot used to regulate the 
amount of water for very small seeds. 



Regulation of Water. — The calling of a dormant embryo 
of a seed into life must take place gradually. The chief 
difficulty lies in the fact that seed require widely varying 
amounts of water, depending upon the species, the soil, 
the season of the year, the age, the size and the state of 
development. The structure of a seed itself often reveals 
its requirements as to water. Seed with hard and thick coats 
require more water than do those with thin, soft coverings. 
Large and heavy seed are less liable to injury by too much 
water than the small, weak ones. Fresh and vigorous seed 
will endure more moisture than old ones, and to know the 
requirements of any species, it is usually necessary to know 



40 SEED AND ITS NEEDS 

something of the conditions under which the plant producing 
them grew to maturity. 

Except in the case of soaking, water should not be applied 
directly to seed but through some medium in which the 
water can be carefully regulated. The usual media are soils, 
plant fiber, earthenware and occasionally bricks or tile. 

Seed should not be kept permanently w^et, because in 
such an event oxygen cannot enter the soil, which, in turn, 
causes the seed tissue to break down with the formation of 
alcohol, and later oils and acids, and the seeds are ruined 
by rotting. It is a safe rule to allow the seed-bed to become 
quite dry before watering. When watering the whole mass 
of earth should be completely saturated. It is rarely ever 
advisable to give a light sprinkling to the surface. The 
practice of repeatedly wetting the upper surface of the soil 
is most detrimental. It causes a crust to form and brings 
the tender roots to the surface, which are later injured by 
drying out. A watering pot with a fine spray is the best 
means of applying the water, because the hose usually packs 
the soil, washes out the seed and makes it difficult to regulate 
the quantity. 

Oxygen Necessary for Germiyiation. — Oxygen is quite as 
important to the seed as is water. In the absence of oxygen 
the food materials in the seed do not pass into solution and 
do not become available for the young plant. Without 
oxygen there can be no organic life, and this is as true of 
plants at this stage as at any other. It has been found that 
the movement of the protoplasm ceases at once in sprouting 
seeds if a supply of oxygen is not present, even when the 
conditions of moisture and temperature are favorable. In 
the presence of moisture and the absence of oxygen, alcoholic 
and other fermentations quickly take place. 

In the sowing of seed the aeration of the soil must be taken 
into account, so there can be an interchange of gases, espe- 
cially of oxygen and carbonic acid gas. 

The main considerations in securing a supply of oxygen 
for seed are: (1) Do not drive out all of the oxygen in the 
crevices of the soil by heavy watering. (2) Do not cover the 
seed so deep that it will prevent the easy access of the air. 



GERMINATION 41 

The depth to which the seed should be planted depends 
partly upon the porosity of the soil and partly upon the size 
of the seed. (3) Prevent the caking of the soil, which is 
usually caused either by repeated waterings or by allowing 
the soil to dry out too quickly. 

Temperature Necessary for Germination. — ^There is a wide 
range of temperature at which the many kinds of seed 
will germinate. The proper temperature depends primarily 
upon the constitutional peculiarities of the seed. Some seed 
will germinate close to the freezing-point and often they may 
be repeatedly frozen and thawed without this process causing 
harmful results. Rye gives a fitting example. The seed 
of this plant can be germinated on cakes of ice, and seemingly 
experiences no great difficulty in growing. However, this 
is an exceptional example, and many other seed, which 
include by far the greater number of species, fail to germinate 
unless the proper temperature is maintained. 

There are three degrees of temperature recognized for the 
germination of seed: (1) minimum; (2) optimum; and (3) 
maximum. The minimum temperature is the lowest tem- 
perature at which a seed will germinate. The maximum 
is the highest temperature at which a seed will germinate. 
The optimum is the medium temperature between the 
minimum and the maximum. The optimum is the best 
temperature at which to place a seed for proper germina- 
tion. The optimum temperature is not a stationary tempera- 
ture but it fluctuates up and down, due to the species, 
the difference in vigor, the ripeness and the general condi- 
tions of the seed in question. 

There is no way of very accurately controlling the tempera- 
ture out of doors. The depth of planting is the only practical 
means of regulating the temperature to any degree, and this 
only slightly. This also influences the degree of moisture 
in the open ground as well as the temperature. However, 
there is a direct influence upon the essential growth oi the 
plant determined by either deep or shallow planting. A 
seed can be planted much deeper in a light soil than in heavy 
clay soil. It can also be planted deeper late in the season 
than early in the season. The seed must not be planted 



42 SEED AND ITS NEEDS 

on account of the temperature deeper than is necessary to 
secure the proper amount of moisture. 

Processes of Germination. — The processes of germination 
are divided into five distinct stages: (1) the seed mechanically 
absorbs water which causes it to swell; (2) the absorption 
of oxygen; (3) by the absorption of the water and the oxygen 
the food materials are brought into solution. Some of the 
food materials as sugars are soluble in the water, while others, 
such as the oils and the starch must undergo a chemical 
change before becoming soluble. The oils are thought to 
pass through several changes, finally being transformed 
into starch. All of the starches are then acted upon by 
certain ferments which convert them into soluble carbohy- 
drates. (4) The soluble food passes to the growing parts of 
the plant. (5) The food is then employed in the unfolding 
and the building up of the embryo. After the first two 
steps the processes go on simultaneously. 

The Internal Conditions Effecting Germination. — In con- 
sidering germination the internal conditions governing the 
germination of seed must be emphasized. These are quite 
as important as the external factors and are four in number: 
(1) matlirity, (2) soundness, (3) viability, and (4) germinative 
energy. 

The Maturity of a Seed. — The power of germination in a 
seed is not one of the distinguishing characteristics of the 
maturity of a seed because many seeds will germinate long 
before their color, weight, size or shape indicates maturity. 
Innumerable experiments, as well as many examples seen in 
the common practice of gardening, have proved that the 
viability of a seed is not coincident with the maturity but 
precedes it. Maturity may be summed up by saying that 
when plants are grown from seed that are immature the 
following detrimental effects are seen in the plant: (1) there 
is a loss of vigor shown by the smaller percentage of germina- 
tion; (2) the weakness of the seedlings; (3) a greater number 
of plants die before maturity; (4) the full vigor of the plant 
is never recovered, although it may and usually does produce 
an abundant harvest; (5) the reproductive parts of the plant 
are increased in proportion to the vegetative parts. 



LONGEVITY OF A SEED 43 

Soundness of a Seed. — Seeds which are not sound have 
their vitality weakened . The soundness of a seed is influenced 
by: (1) Injury due to thrashing; (2) by the action of physical 
or chemical agents; (3) by being imperfect or shrivelled; (4) 
by being produced from plants that were stunted in their 
growth either by fungi or insects. All of these phases are 
harmful to the germination of a seed. It follows, then, from 
facts well in hand, that seeds which are in any way injured 
should be discarded, and that soundness should be one of the 
requi_sites of a good seed. Unsound seed should be destroyed 
because weakly and sickly plants will be produced. 

Seed that are eaten or injured by certain insects, such as 
the pea weevil or bean weevil, produce great loss annually. 
Plants grown from seed injured in this way are retarded in 
growth, with the result that weak plants are produced. The 
amount of damage resulting to seed by the attacks of insects 
is not always in proportion to the part injured. ^ The pea 
weevil sometimes destroys most of the stored food in the pea, 
but if the pumule is untouched the pea will germinate. On 
the other hand a slight injury to the pumule will destroy the 
germinating power of the seed even though all of the food 
material in uninjured. 

Longevity of a Seed.— The length of time a seed is alive is 
called longevity. The longevity of seed is a much-discussed 
question, although one that can be easily settled, and a 
question upon which there is much authentic data. The lon- 
gevity of a seed depends for the most part upon the species, 
but also differs widely in this respect. The climatic con- 
ditions materially influence the longevity of a seed, and none 
of the qualities of a seed, such as weight, color or size, seem 
to be correlated in any way with the length of life of the 
embryo of a seed. Poor method of harvesting; poor storage 
facilities; mechanical injuries of various kinds, which affect 
the food supply of the embryo, all tend to shorten the life 
of the seed. Likewise immature seeds begin to fail earlier 
and die before their natural time. Improper fertilization or 
poorly formed and imperfect embryo give short-lived seed. 
The jposition of the fruit on the plant sometimes exercises 
an influence on the germinating power of the seed. 



44 SEED AND ITS NEEDS 

Germinative Energy of a Seed. — ^The germinative energy 
or the speed of germination is that energy which is required 
for the germination of a seed. The length of time this 
energy is available varies from a few hours to several years, 
depending upon the different species of plants. The reasons 
for these variations in certain plants are not well understood, 
although they are probably caused to some extent (1) by 
the different degrees of ripeness of the seed, (2) by the nature 
of the seed coat, and (3) by the different degrees of stability 
of the food compounds. Possibly the embryo might be 
influenced to a limited extent by heredity. 

The shorter the period of germination the better, because 
after the seed is once planted it is in constant danger of 
destruction from various causes, as, for example, by insects 
or predaceous animals. 

The seed of different species of plants require different 
germinative periods, but there is an abnormal condition 
recognized by seedsmen, due to the hard condition of the 
testa or seed coat of some seed, and because of this hardness 
of the seed coat the absorption of water cannot take place. 
These seeds are known as "hard seed" or hard-shelled seed, 
and are common in legumes as well as in some other plants. 
The power to germinate is present in these hard-coated seeds, 
and their value is not impaired. This defect is caused for the 
most part by the presence of abnormal quantities of silica, 
lime and other ash ingredients in the seed coat, and are 
substances which are not affected by soaking in water. 
These defects can be remedied (1) by filing of the seed coat, 
(2) by mixing the seed with sharp sand, (3) by revolving the 
seed in a cylinder with corrugated edge, (4) by the cracking 
or the breaking of the seed coat with a hammer, (5) by the 
treatment of the seed with chemicals, such as weak acids. 

Seed Testing. — In order to guard against failure, germi- 
nation tests for all seed should be made every season. Seed 
testing consists in the counting out of a definite number of 
seed, of which the usual number is one hundred. The seed 
must not be specially selected, but should represent a fair 
sample of the lot. 

The testing of seed is very important and its value cannot 



SEED TESTERS 45 

be overestimated from the standpoint of profits. In all inten- 
sive agricultural and more particularly in horticultural work 
the money made from a given crop is largely determined by 
the time at which the crop reaches the market. In order to 
secure the maximum yields from a given piece of land there 
must be a full stand of plants and not one-half or two-thirds 
of a stand. If the testing of the seeds is neglected and their 
vitality happens to be low the stand of plants will be below 
the normal number, consequently the yield will be reduced 
to a point where no profits are made. Unless the seed is 
tested the stand of plants cannot be ascertained until the 
seed come up. If a poor stand at this late date is discovered, 
and even if replanting is then resorted to, the time lost is so 
great that the crop will come on the market at a time when 
every grower is producing the same crop, and consequently 
the price is so reduced that the crop is often unprofitable. 
On the other hand, if the seed had been tested the grower 
would have known what percentage of seed would germinate, 
and he could plant accordingly. If a given sample tested 
95 per cent, it would only be necessary to plant in the 
normal way, with the result of a good stand of plants; but if 
the sample only tested 50 per cent, then it would be either 
necessary to plant twice as many seeds or purchase more seed 
with greater vitality. The progressive grower always guards 
against a possible loss. Consequently he germinates his seed 
prior to the time for planting and he knows definitely how 
many seed can be expected to grow and then plants accord- 
ingly. 

Seed Testers. — There are four kinds of seed testers. These 
are more or less distinct, and some kinds can easily be made 
by the grower. 

The dinner-plate seed tester (Fig. 9) consists of two large- 
sized dinner plates, the one turned over the other. Between 
the plates are placed two or three blotters covered with 
two pieces of canton flannel. The material is moistened 
with water and the seed are placed between the blotters 
and are set in a warm room until they germinate. It is 
always well to change the blotters after each test, in order 
to guard against infection by fungi, which sometimes cause 
the seed to mould. 



46 



SEED AND ITS NEEDS 



The germinating cup is a small earthen vessel, 3 inches in 
diameter or 3 inches square and li inches deep. The cup is 
covered with a lid of the same size and shape as the top of 
cup, in which are a number of small holes. The cup is placed 
in a shallow pan of water and kept at a temperature of about 
75° or 80° F. Germinating cups must be thoroughly steril- 
ized before the seeds are placed in them. 



..^ -'- 




y 


y < 







Fig. 9. — The dinner-plate seed tester. 



The tile germinator is a large tile, 12 x 15 inches and 2 
inches deep, in which have been molded pockets varying in 
size from 1 inch to 3 inches in diameter. This tester is 
placed in a shallow pan of water the same as the germinating 
cups. Usually it is advisable to cover the top of the tester 
with a pane of glass to prevent spores of fungi from falling 
on the seeds and causing trouble. 

The Geneva seed tester is a galvanized iron pan, 10 inches 
wide, 14 inches long and 3| inches deep, with a ledge | inch 
wide along the sides. The seed are held in folds of cloth 
suspended on rods which rest on this ledge. The water is 
carried to the seed through capillarity. A pane of glass is 



SOIL FOR THE SEED-BED 47 

usually placed over the tester after the seed have been 
arranged . 

Seed-bed.^ — In the growing of plants a good seed-bed is 
absolutely essential and is a very important adjunct to the 
successful manipulation of the plants. 

If the seed-bed is improperly prepared the subsequent 
growth of the plants is often retarded. The soil, however, 
is one of the most important parts of the seed-bed, and the 
following points should be given considerable attention 
before the selection is made: (1) The soil should be possessed 
with the power of holding water; (2) the soil should be such 
as to maintain the proper degree of heat; (3) the seed-bed 
should be well drained; (4) the soil must never be allowed 
to get too wet. If any of these factors are neglected 
the efficiency of the seed bed is reduced. Attention should 
be given to all of these points, with the view of making 
them as near perfect as it is possible to do. The seed need 
constant watching and careful attention. The soil, if possible, 
should be kept a few degrees warmer than the air, and should 
be uniform in moisture. Cold air should be avoided. 

Soil for the Seed-bed. — The soil should be carefully selected 
and an attempt made to bring it into the best possible shape. 
Experienced growers know that the choice of soil depends 
not so much upon the nutritive substances it contains but 
upon its physical properties, its power of retaining water and 
its porosity. In the sowing of seed we are not limited to 
any special soil but may select practically any type having 
good physical qualities. Experience has taught us that 
seed of certain species will do better in some special soils. 
A light sandy soil will probably make the best seed-bed for 
all general purposes, since it has a large number of good 
qualities. For some seed a muck or a peat soil is considered 
excellent. Such a soil is very easily handled and is well 
suited for seed of a great number of plants. By a little experi- 
ence one can judge a good soil by its appearance. If the 
soil is too heavy it can be made lighter by the addition of the 
right proportion of some lighter soil, such as sand or by the 
use of decaying organic matter found in well-rotted manure 
or leaf mould. Sand in too large a quantity is not desirable, 



48 SEED AND ITS NEEDS 

because it contains neither life nor humus and tends to make 
a dead soil. If, however, the soil is too light a clay or a heavy 
loam may be added. 

The physical properties of the soil should be such as not to 
pack, and this can be easily determined by taking a small 
portion in the hand and firmly squeezing it. If the soil 
falls apart it has about the right amount of water; if it is 
compact it is either too wet or too heavy for the planting of 
seed and the best results will not be obtained. A small 
amount of plant food is an advantage although not a necessity 
at this stage of growth. The soil for the seed-bed should be 
free from an excessive amount of moisture, the larvae of 
injurious insects, and as free as possible from foreign weed 
seed. 




Fig. 10. — A wooden marker to regulate the depth for planting seed. 

The freezing of the soil will rid it of many of the injurious 
animal organisms and at the same time will put it in a better 
physical condition. Whenever it is possible it will be highly 
advantageous to subject the soil to repeated freezings and 
thawings before using it in the seed-boxes. 

Depth of Planting. — Seed are covered with soil to secure 
an intimate contact with the moist earth. Care should be 
exercised in not excluding the air because that would be highly 
injurious to the seed. The proper depth must always be 
judged by the gardener and is determined largely by the size 
of the seed and the nature of the soil. It is apparent, however, 
that the small, delicate seed, whose powers of germination 



TIME TO PLANT 49 

are reduced in proportion to their size, should have ver}^ 
httle covering, because th-e tender plantlet will be unable 
to push through the soil. In the large and vigorous seeds 
this precaution need not be taken. However, it is never 
beneficial to cover the seed deeper than is really necessary 
to seciu-e the requisite degree of moisture. Many small 
seed are often sown upon the surface of the soil and covered 
with a thin mulch, while some others need no covering except 
a pane of glass to retain the proper amount of moisture. If 
the seed are planted in the open the same precautions are 
necessary. 

Compacting of the Soil. — ^The seed must be in intimate 
contact with the soil particles in order to secure the proper 
amount of moisture to germinate. If the soil is loose about 




Fig. 11. — A firming board. 

the seed they get but little moisture, which prevents their 
maximum germination and the subsequent growth of the 
plantlet. In nearly all cases the soil must be firmed over the 
seed to give the best results. This is accomplished in many 
field crops by the use of heavy rollers. In market gardening 
the roller follows the seed drill and is usually a part of it. 
When seed is sown in flats a firming board is usually employed 
to compact the soil about the seed, or the soil may be pressed 
down with the hands. 

Time to Plant. ^ — All plants require a definite period in order 
to grow to maturity. The proper time then to sow the seed 
would be such that the growing period would be long enough 
to bring the crop to its full state of ripeness. The time at 
which planting is to be done must be kept in mind, remember- 
ing, however, that seed of certain plants that are sown too 
early or too late, and which will encounter unfavorable heat 
or moisture conditions, will not produce good plants. It is 
4 



50 SEED AND ITS NEEDS 

impossible to set a definite date for the sowing of the seed, 
since the season, the chmate, the moisture and the location 
vary so much that good judgment must be used in every 
locality. The local vegetation should be used as an index in 
determining the proper time of planting. As an example of 
this the seed of hardy plants, such as the peas, the onions, 
and the radishes, are usually sown when the peaches begin 
to bloom, or as soon as the land can be worked in the spring. 
Other crops which are not so hardy should be sown about a 
week or ten days later. Warm, tender plants, as the tomato, 
the egg plant, the pepper and many others, should not be 
planted until all danger of frost has past. The time at which 
the last frost occurs, of course, varies in all localities as well 
as in different seasons. In the South the seed can be sown 
earlier, while farther North, where the season is later, the seed 
must necessarily be sown later. In the sowing of seed it is 
always a good practice to sow a larger amount than is neces- 
sary to secure a good stand, because this will ensure against 
any loss from unavoidable causes. The extra cost in the sow- 
ing of twice the amount of seed required is very small in com- 
parison with the time and space lost when a poor stand results. 

Sowing of Seed.^ — ^There are two methods by which seed 
are sown: (1) broadcasting and (2) sowing in drills. Broad- 
casting is the distribution of seed freely over the surface from 
the open hand through the thumb and fingers. There are 
also several kinds of hand seeders on the market, all of which 
broadcast the seed. The most simple kind of hand seeder 
and the one that is most often used for the seeding of grass 
and other small seed is one with a rotating distribution. This 
seeder consists of a star-shaped wheel, which is given a rapid 
rotation by gearing from a crank. A bag is provided with 
straps which may be carried from the shoulder and the 
distributing device placed at the bottom. The seeder is 
confined principally to small areas and often used in the 
seeding of lawns. 

Watering of the Seedlings. — ^Watering is seldom done prop- 
erly by the amateur, and in many cases this is the cause of 
failure. It is impossible to lay down definite rules which can 
be followed, but a few suggestions might b^ offered which will 



THINNING OF PLANTS 51 

give some aid : Water only when the ground seems to need 
it is an excellent rule. But this rule can only be followed 
by one with some experience, because this is the only way the 
need can be definitely known. Seed, as well as seedlings, are 
often injured by too much watering. It is not well to apply 
water too often, but rather to let the plant feel the need of 
moisture by slightly wilting. 

The best time to water is between sunset and sunrise, and 
the seedlings should usually be watered in the early part of 
the day before the sun appears. This is important, because 
as a rule if the plants go through the night in a damp condition 
they are more subject to the attack of diseases. A damp 
atmosphere with a wet soil will be a combination that only 
the hardiest seedlings can stand if long continued, and a 
saturated condition of the air and soil, especially if accom- 
panied by undue heat, surely invites the attack of the damp- 
ing-off fungus. Single copious waterings are much better 
than several scanty sprinklings. Frequent sprinklings cause 
the surface to become crusted and hard, while the roots may 
be suffering from thirst. Moreover, such watering brings the 
tender roots to the surface, which is an undesirable condition. 
As soon as the soil dries sufficiently after watering it should 
be cultivated and a dust mulch maintained. This introduces 
air and liberates plant food, which stimulates plant growth. 
The appearance of mould on a seed-bed is a sure sign that the 
soil is too wet. Tall, spindling seedlings with light green 
foliage indicates too much water and too high a temperature. 
Watering must not be applied to the seedlings forcibly, since 
it has a tendency to wash them out of the soil as well as 
causing a crust to form, both of which are extremely detri- 
mental to the production of good plants. 

Thinning of Plants.— After planting seed of many crops 
it is usually found that more have grown than can be allowed 
to stand, and that the process of thinning will have to be 
practised in order to reduce the number. Such thinning can 
be made of great value if properly done, since it is a most 
excellent means of practising plant selection. The poorest 
and the weakest seedlings should always be pulled out and 
discarded, and only those plants which have good vitality 
should be retained and permitted to grow. 



52 SEED AND ITS NEEDS 

Thinning is not only done to give the plants more room to 
expand and to grow, but also to provide them with sufficient 
space from which to gather plant food. It should therefore 
be done as soon as possible after the plants are up. The early 
elimination of the surplus plants prevents any loss of the 
available food. 

Thinning is accomplished in several ways according to the 
crop : (1) By weeders or implements designed for the purpose 
of cutting out the surplus plants, and (2) by hand. Hand 
thinning is usually practised on such plants as the garden 
beet or the onion. 

Transplanting of Seedlings. — One of the principal reasons 
for the transplanting of the seedling is to develop a good root 
system. An ideal root system is one that has a great number 
of short branches, bearing many small root hairs. Such a 
root system provides a large area for the absorption of food 
material in a comparatively small space. An expression for 
this condition often used by gardeners is "ball of root," 
which means a well-developed and compact root system. 
The formation of this ball takes place only after the seedling 
has been transplanted several times. It is formed when the 
larger roots are broken off, which causes them to branch and 
to make a number of small fibrous roots. The root system 
then is a network of fine root hairs, all of which take food 
from the soil. Such a root system is easiest and is most readily 
obtained by the root pruning which takes place during 
transplantings. With many plants repeated transplantings 
are an advantage. The first transplanting is most important. 
It consists in the pricking of the seedlings out of the seed 
bed. Several precautions must be observed, of which the 
most important one is the preparatory treatment of the seed- 
lings before transplanting. A few days previous to the time 
the plants are to be taken up, withhold the water supply 
and ventilate the plants freely to harden the tissue of the 
seedlings if they have been grown in a hot-bed or cold frame. 
An hour or two previous to the transplanting of the seedlings 
give them an abundance of water. In removing the plants 
from the seed-bed avoid injury to the roots, and in resetting 
them pack the soil firmly about the roots so that they will 



REVIEW QUESTIONS 53 

quickly take hold of the soil. Usually shading of the plants 
for a day or so to prevent withering after transplanting is 
important. The plants should be set in the soil nearly up 
to the first leaf, which enables them to take root more deeply 
and thus to be better able to withstand drought. In the trans- 
planting of seedlings to the open, after they have attained 
some size, account must be taken of the loss of a part of the 
root S3 stem. The balance between the leaves and the roots 
is now broken. It is apparent that in transplanting some 
roots are always lost, which causes the leaf surface to be in 
excess of that of the root system. For this reason it is always 
advisable to reduce the leaf surface, so that it will be in pro- 
portion to the root system, thus maintaining the equilibrium 
or the balance of the plant as near as possible. From one- 
fourth to one-half of the leaf surface is usually removed. 
Where it is possible it is usually never advisable to trans- 
plant seedlings immediately after a rain, because the ground 
is then in a poor condition, and it cannot be satisfactorily 
firmed about the roots of the plant. The baking of the soil 
and the formation of a hard crust is the result when working 
with a soil that is too wet. After transplanting the ground 
should be thoroughly cultivated at the first opportunity^ A 
mulch of dry soil should be maintained over the surface. 

Sometimes plants are grown and transplanted into small 
pots. Thumb pots, the smallest size, are selected for the 
first transplanting and later the plants are gradually shifted 
to larger sizes. The soil should be comparatively rich, the 
aim being at this time to develop, as soon as possible, a 
compact root system before transplanting in the field. Pots 
are used in order that a severe check to the plant will be 
avoided. 

REVIEW QUESTIONS. 

1. What three parts compose a seed? 

2. What is germination? What two stages mark the beginning of 
germination? 

3. Name three external requisites for germination. 

4. What function has water on the germination of a seed? 

5. What is gained by the soaking of a seed? 

6. What results when seed are kept permanently wet? 

7. Why is oxygen necessary for the germination of a seed? 



54 SEED AND ITS NEEDS 

8. Why must the soil be aerated for good plant growth? 

9. Give two ways in which oxygen can be secured for the seed. 

10. What three temperatures are recognized in the germination of seed? 

11. What are the five processes of germination? 

12. Name the internal conditions affecting germination. 

13. What is meant by maturity of a seed? 

14. Discuss two ways a seed may be unsound. 

15. Is germinative energy important to the seed? 

16. What are hard seeds? How is the defect remedied? 

17. What is seed testing and of what value is it to the grower? 

18. Describe four kinds of seed testers. 

19. What type of soil is preferred for the seed-bed? 

20. What determines the depth to which seed should be planted? 

21. Discuss the compacting of the soil about the seed. 

22. What determines the proper time to plant seeds? 

23. Why is it necessary to thin plants? 

24. What is a seed-bed, and why is it important to have it well prepared? 

25. What two methods are used in sowing of seed? 

26. Why does shade assist the seedling to start growth? 

27. Discuss the watering of seedlings. 

28. Discuss transplanting of seedlings. 



CHAPTER III. 
HOT-BED AND COLD FRAME. 

The hot-bed and the cold frame is a very important and a 
very necessary adjunct to the commercial as well as to the 
home garden. Few people realize the importance of some 
form of glass. It is not only important in connection with 
the production of early plants but also valuable for the grow- 
ing to maturity of lettuce and radishes, either early in the 
spring or late in the fall. Glass is regarded as being prac- 
tically indispensable for many garden operations. In certain 
sections of the country it is a positive necessity, especially 
where certain crops are grown, as, for example, the tomato 
or the pepper. 

In addition to the use of glass for the forcing of early 
vegetables it is valuable for the winter protection of partially 
hardy plants. The greatest economic use is probably in the 
hastening of the growth of certain crops as well as extending 
the growing period of others. 

HOT-BEDS. 

The advantages of hotbeds may be summed up briefly 
under the following heads: (1) Crops can be matured and 
harvested earlier, thus gaining the advantage of better 
prices. (2) By starting plants under glass two or more crops 
may be grown on the same land during a growing season. 

(3) In sections of the country where the growing season is 
short, such crops as tomatoes, melons and peppers can only 
be successfully matured by starting the plants in the hotbed. 

(4) Where the plants are large when they are set in the field, 
there is less danger of loss by insects and diseases, as well as 
less injury from weeds. (5) Because of the longer growing 
season afforded some crops, larger yields are obtained. 



56 HOT-BED AND COLD FRAME 

Location. — In the selection of a location for a hot-bed several 
factors should be considered. Since it is very important that 
the seeds and the seedlings should not suffer from the lack of 
water, it is necessary to place the frames in close proximity 
to a good supply of available water. This cannot be over- 
emphasized, because the failure of many crops to be profitable 
is due to the lack of water during the early part of their 
growth. 

Hot-beds should be placed so as to be protected from severe 
cold winds. Usually the cold winds are from the north or 
the west, and care should be used to see that the frames 
are protected on these sides. Windbreaks afford the most 
common as well as the most economical protection, and where 
it is possible natural wind-breaks, such as hills, trees or 
wooded areas, should be utilized. When these natural 
wind-breaks are not available a board fence, five or six feet 
high, can be constructed, or a location might be selected back 
of some outbuildings, such as granaries or buggy sheds. 

Exposure.— It is conceded by all growers that the south 
or southeast exposures are to be preferred over all others. 
This aspect allows the frames to have the full benefit of the 
sun's rays at a time of the year when it is most needed. The 
frames should run parallel with each other so as to facilitate 
in the handling of the glass. Roads or alley-ways should 
be constructed between the frames so as to be more con- 
venient when composting the manure and when filling 
the beds. 

Hot-bed Pit.— Most of the hot-beds are heated by the fer- 
mentation of manures, and for this reason a pit or a hole in 
the ground is necessary. Good drainage in the pit is an 
absolute essential, and where natural drainage is poor some 
artificial means of removing any surplus water must be 
provided. In many soils artificial drainage is unnecessary, 
but occasionally some artificial means of drawing off the 
surplus water is necessary. Two ways of providing good 
drainage is either by the use of 4-inch tile laid in the bottom 
of the pit or by placing 6 inches of cinders or coarse gravel 
in the bottom before the compost is thrown in the pit. Owing 
to the uncertainty of the weather in the spring it is usually 



HOT-BEDS 57 

advisable to dig the pit in the fall before the ground is frozen 
and fill it with leaves or with coarse manure. 

The size of the pit will depend upon the size of the hot-bed, 
and whether it is for home use or for commercial purposes. 
In either case the size of the pit should be just a trifle larger 
than the frame, so the frame will fit into it snugly. 

The depth of the pit depends upon several factors: (1) 
Latitude: The section of the country or the latitude deter- 
mines the depth to a large degree, because the inside heat of 
the frame is materially influenced by the external tem- 
perature. (2) The time of the year: When crops are started 
late in the season, as for example in March or April, less 
heat and consequently less depth in the pit is required than 
if the plants are started in February or earlier. (3) The kind 
of a crop : Certain plants known as tender or warm-weather 
plants, such as the tomato, pepper or egg-plant, require con- 
siderably more heat than the more hardy plants, as the 
cabbage or the lettuce. Therefore the pit must of necessity 
be deeper, to supply the proper amount of heat to grow the 
warm plants successfully. In the North the customary depth 
varies from 15 to 36 inches. The depth gradually decreases 
as one goes south, where it ranges from 6 to 12 inches. The 
heating material which is used and the length of time the 
hot-bed will be needed also influences its depth. 

Hot-bed Frame. — Five materials are prominent in the con- 
struction of the frame: (1) wood, (2) concrete, (3) stone, 
(4) brick and (5) cement blocks. Concrete is without a 
doubt the most durable as well as the neatest, although wood 
is more generally used because of its cheapness. If wood is 
used it is advisable to secure cedar, locust or c^^ress, since 
these woods are the most durable and will withstand the 
trying conditions under which the frame is placed. The 
frame should be made to fit the pit. The length should be 
determined by the needs of the grower. The usual width is 
6 feet, because the standard size of the sash is 3 x 6 feet. 
It is always more convenient to have the width of the 
frame about one-half inch less than the length of the sash. 
The upper side of the frame should be 6 to 8 inches higher 
than the lower side so as to give the proper slope to the frame. 



58 



HOT-BED AND COLD FRAME 



When the frame is made of wood, crossbars should be pro- 
vided because they possess many advantages. The chief use 
of the crossbars is to strengthen and to prevent the frames 
from warping or twisting out of shape when they are in 




Fig. 12. — A cross-section of a concrete hot-bed. 

contact with the moist earth. The crossbar should be made 
of a piece of wood 2x3 inches. It should be of the best 
material. The crossbars should be placed with the greatest 



^.c-" 


w 


-jr" 


-1_- 




,i^.,ms>^ 


I. 






■) 


f 




.. 




J 









Fig. 13. — Showing the method of constructing a concrete hot-bed. 
framework which is necessary. 



Note the 



care and precision, because if they are too close together the 
sash will bind and cause great annoyance. The distance from 
center to center of the crossbars should be one-half inch more 
than the width of the sash to ensure ease in manipulation. 



HOT-BEDS 



59 



Hot-bed Sash. — ^Two kinds of hot-bed sash can be pur- 
chased, the single-glass and the double-glass sash. They 
can also be made by any local firm. When the sash are 
constructed locally, specify emphatically that only the 
most durable wood should be used and cypress or cedar 
is preferred. Sash differ greatly in length and in width, 
but the standard size is 3 x 6 feet. Sash of other sizes 
are inconvenient to handle and possess no advantages 
over the standard. The usual thickness of the sash is 
about IJ inches, but this varies, and usually ranges from 
If to 2 inches. The lighter sash are easier to handle, but 
the heavier ones are more durable and sustain less breakage. 




Fig. 14. — A good rack for hot-bed sash. 

All sash should receive a priming coat of paint before 
they are glazed. The cracks and the crevices should be 
filled with paint in order to exclude all water, so that decay 
will be lessened. Glass of the best quality should be pur- 
chased. The lower grades of glass, as a rule, cause more 
burning to the plants because of their many defects. 

The glass is placed into the frames by either lapping or 
by butting. Lapping is the most popular and the method 
that is usually recommended, because there is less leakage 



60 HOT-BED AND COLD FRAME 

and less trouble with the panes slipping down. The glass 
should be lapped about J inch and laid in putty. Each 
pane of glass should be fastened by glazing points, and 
putty pressed in the angles formed by the glass and the 
sash bars. When the glass is butted the two edges of the 
panes are simply brought together. The greatest draw- 
back to this method is the fact that the glass is never per- 
fectly square and the panes do not fit together tightly. 
The cracks thus formed between the two panes permit 
a great amount of leakage to occur which is very injurious 
to the growing plants. 

After the sash are glazed they should be given two or 
three coats of good white-lead paint. This painting should 
be repeated at least once a year throughout the life of the 
sash. The painting materially increases the length of time 
the sash can be used. When the sash are not in use they 
should be stored in a dry place (Fig. 14). 

A FOUR-FRAME HOT-BED. 

Fig. 15 represents a four-frame hot-bed and a convenient 
size for the home garden. So important is some form of 
glass to the garden that no vegetable garden is complete 
without a two- or four-frame hot-bed. When only a small 
city lot is available for a garden the hot-bed can be made 
one-half this size. 

The arrangement of the crops in the hot-bed can be deter- 
mined by the individual, but Fig. 15 is designed to give 
several suggestions which might help the novice or one not 
very famihar with this form of gardening to fill up the 
space to the best advantage. 

In this plan two sash are given over to the growing of 
lettuce and radishes and early beets, w^hile one is used for 
the production of the early plants which are to be set 
in the garden. The fourth is used for the transplanting of 
the seedlings, in order that large, stocky and healthy plants 
will result. The first transplanting from the seed bed is 
essential if good plants are desired, because it not only 
increases the root system, but it helps the plants to with- 



A FOUR-FRAME HOT-BED 



61 



PLAN OF FOUR-FRAME HOT-BED. 



Onion seed 


Beet seed 


Cabbage seed 


I Cauliflower seed 


Celery seed | 


Egg plant seed 


i Pepper seed 


Parsley seed 


I Endive seed 


Lettuce seed 


Cauliflower plants 


Cabbage plants 


Lettuce plants 


Egg plant plants 


Pepper plants 


Parsley plants 


Endive plants 


Tomato plants 


Tomato plants 


Tomato plants 


Lettuce 
February 25 to March 10 


Radishes and early beets 
February 25 to March 10 



Fig. 15 



62 HOT-BED AND COLD FRAME 

stand the more severe operation when they are set in the 
garden. 

If only a two-frame bed is made the space allotted to 
each crop can be reduced. 

The double-glass sash are not to be generally recommended 
for the following reasons: (1) they are too expensive; (2) 
they are very heavy to handle; (3) they accumulate and 
retain moisture between the two layers of glass, which 
causes their rapid decay; and (4) they collect dirt and 
moisture between the glasses, which decrease the amount of 
light that can pass through the glass. However, it must 
not be thought that the double glass does not possess some 
good points. The advantages of the double-glass sash may 
be briefly summed up as follows: (1) a growing tempera- 
ture is reached earlier in the day; (2) the labor of managing 
the frames is reduced; and (3) the plants are afforded more 
thorough protection from cold. Although the double-glass 
sash do possess certain advantages, the disadvantages seem 
to overshadow the advantages, and they cannot be generally 
recommended. 

Comj)osting the Manure. — ^The usual material for heating 
the hot-bed is horse manure. Sometimes forest leaves, spent 
hops, and occasionally sheep and poultry manure are used, 
but sheep and poultry manures are usually of more value 
for other purposes. 

The horse manure should consist of about one-third litter. 
When the solid excrement is used entirely the fermentation 
is usually too violent, and consequently of too short a dura- 
tion. Straw is the best material for the litter, and manure 
composed of shavings or sawdust should never be used. 

The manure should be composted before it is placed in 
the pit. The composting should begin about ten days prior 
to the time the hot-beds are to be made. The manure should 
first be piled up in compost heaps. A convenient size of 
the compost pile is 4 or 5 feet wide and about as high, with 
length enough to fill the frames. After the heating of the 
compost has started and is well under way, say two or three 
days after it is piled, the mamu-e must be turned over, 
thoroughly mixing the outside of the pile with the inside. 



A FOUR-FRAME HOT-BED 



63 



If any drying out of the compost has occurred by this 
time the addition of a Httle water will improve the compost. 
Two or three such handlings of the compost are necessary 
to give it a uniform and an even fermentation. When the 
fermentation is complete and uniform the compost is placed 
in the pit. 




Fig. 16. — Students filling a concrete hot-l.)Ccl. 



In filling the pit the manure should be distributed in 
successive layers of 6 or 7 inches. Each layer must be firmly 
packed down, particularly along the sides and in the corners. 
When the firming along the sides is neglected there is 
more settling of the compost along the sides than in the 
center of the pit, which makes the surface uneven and causes 
great damage to the young seedlings; The compost will 
settle several inches, and when filling the pit due allow- 
ance should be made for this setting. After the compost is 
placed in the pit from 2 to 6 inches of soil should be spread 
over the manm*e. If the plants are to be grown in flats 2 
inches of soil will be sufficient, but if the seed is to be sown 



64 



HOT-BED AND COLD FRAME 



directly in the beds from 4 to 6 inches of good garden loam 



IS necessary. 



After the manure has been placed in the pit a secondary 
fermentation will take place, and the heat will often rise 
as high as 100° to 110° F. At this time 
I — it would be very detrimental to plant 

either seeds or plants in the soil, and a 
week or ten days should lapse after the 
hotbed is made before any planting is 
done. This secondary heating continues 
for a longer or a shorter period, and 
gradually falls until it reaches 65° to 75° 
F., where it remains more or less con- 
stant throughout the life of the hotbed. 
By placing a soil thermometer in the bed 
it is easy to determine the proper time to 
plant, which will vary from a few days 
to a couple of weeks, depending upon 
' the depth of the pit, the freshness of the 
manure and several other factors. 



COLD FRAME. 

A cold frame is a bed covered with glass 
where no heat is provided except the 
sun's rays. All the conditions, such as 
the location, the arrangement, the man- 
agement, etc., that are recommended for 
hot-beds apply with equal force to cold 
frames. The cold frame, as a rule, is used 
later in the season than the hot-bed. No 
pit is required for the cold frame. It 
simply consists of a wooden frame placed 
on top of the soil. Occasionally manure 
is piled around the sides of the frame to 
offer a little protection. The cold frame 
is usually employed for the "hardening off" of plants later 
in the season, but on a small scale the hot-bed will serve 
this purpose. As a rule the cold frame requires more 



Fig. 17. — A soil ther 
raometer. 



REVIEW QUESTIONS 



65 



water, because the plants are grown later in the season, 
when transpiration and evaporation are greater. 




Fig. 18. — A cross-section of a cold frame. 

The cold frame has a few advantages over the hot-bed. 
It is more cheaply constructed, it requires no heating mate- 
rials and needs no excavation. However, the cold frame 
cannot be used as early in the season as the hot-bed, and 
it should only supplement the hot-bed and not replace it. 

The frames may be movable or stationary. Portable 
frames are not, as a rule, popular with the larger growers 
and the stationary frames seem to give the best satisfaction. 



1. 

2. 

3. 

4. 

5. 

6. 

7. 

8. 

9. 

10. 

side? 

11. 

12. 

13. 

14. 

15. 

16. 

17. 

sash. 

18. 

19. 

take? 



REVIEW QUESTIONS. 

Why are hot-beds and cold frames important? 

Give four advantages of a hot-bed. 

Discuss the location of a hot-bed. 

What is the value of a wind-break for a hot-bed? 

What is the distinction between a natural and an artificial wind-break? 

What exposures are preferred for the hot-bed? 

Describe the hot-bed pit. 

What is the standard size of the hot-bed sash? 

Name the five materials of which the frame is made. 

How much higher must the upper side of the frame be than the lower 

What is the value of crossbars? 

What kinds of hot-bed sash are made? 

Give the advantages and the disadvantages of each kind. 

Discuss the two ways of placing glass in the frames. 

Which method is the best? 

Why is it important to have all frames well painted? 

Name four advantages and three disadvantages of the double-glass 

What is meant by a compost? 

How should the manure be composted, and how long does it usually 



66 HOT-BED AND COLD FRAME 

20. What kind of manure should be used for the hot-bed? 

21. What is the proper way of placing the composted manure in the pit? 

22. Why is it important to have the manure firmly tramped down? 

23. What is secondary fermentation and how high does the temperature 
go? 

24. How long after the hot-bed has been made before the seeds can be 
planted? 

25. What is the difference between a cold frame and a hot-bed? 



CHAPTER IV. 
CULTIVATION AND TILLAGE. 

Cultivation is the process of either breaking up the 
soil for the purpose of planting agricultural crops or stir- 
ring it to accelerate plant growth. Cultivation for the 
improvement of the crop should be continued at frequent 
intervals during the growing period of every crop. The 
importance of cultivation cannot be overestimated and the 
efficiency with which it is done depends upon the kind of 
tools used, and how skilfully the operator uses them. Much 
importance is laid upon the way in which cultivation is 
done, because often the difference between profit and loss 
is found in either good or bad cultivation. Good cultiva- 
tion is one of the secrets of success in all kinds of agricul- 
tural work, and it is even more important in crops that are 
grown intensively, as are most of the horticultural crops. 
Horticultural crops require a great amount of attention to 
produce the maximum yield and the highest quality. Cul- 
tivation goes a long way in bringing about these good results. 

It is important that cultivation should be done at the 
proper time, and much depends upon the character and the 
thoroughness of the operations. There is always a proper 
time to perform a piece of work and cultivation is no excep- 
tion to this rule, and things worth doing at all are worth 
doing well. Cultivation when properly done should make 
the soil loose and friable, and all of the large lumps should 
be broken up. 

The failure to cultivate the garden at the proper time 
often results in the weeds overrunning the plants, which 
not only reduces the yield, but causes great labor and 
unnecessary expense in hand hoeing and in weeding. When 
the conditions of the soil are satisfactory for cultivation, it 



68 CULTIVATION AND TILLAGE 

should be attended to at once, because if it is delayed many 
circumstances may arise to hinder the work. 

Tillage is the most efficient means of assisting nature in 
converting the plant food into forms that are available 
to the plants. One of the most noticeable results of cultiva- 
tion is the fineness of the soil particles which is accomplished 
by the breaking up of the larger lumps. This pulverization 
of the soil is very beneficial, because it makes it easier for 
the roots of the plants to penetrate to a greater depth and 
to feed over a larger area. The tender rootlets must push 
their way in between the soil grains, because it is impossible 
for them to penetrate hard lumps of soil, and where large 
clods of earth are abundant the growth of the plants is 
materially checked. 

Objects of Cultivation. — Some of the reasons for cultiva- 
tion may be summed up briefly as follows: (1) Cultivation 
reduces the soil particles to a fine state of division, which 
modifies its physical make-up. This pulverization of the 
soil particles is highly important in that plant growth 
demands a soil that is fine because it usually will be able 
to hold more water. (2) Cultivation helps to regulate the 
water-holding capacity of the soil. This is brought about 
by the greater number of soil particles which are found in 
a given area. Since the amount of water that a soil can 
hold is determined by the film of water that surrounds 
each soil particle, it is evident that the greater the number 
of soil particles that occupy a given space, the greater will 
be the amount of water that it can hold. (3) Cultivation 
modifies the soil temperature. When air is permitted to 
permeate the soil, it carries with it heat and warmth to a 
lower depth. The heat units entrapped in the soil causes 
the temperature to be higher and the growth to be more 
rapid. (4) Cultivation stimulates the increased production 
of beneficial bacteria. (5) Cultivation aerates the soil. If 
the soil particles are stirred around, and finely broken up, 
there is bound to be a greater number of soil spaces, and 
consequently there must be more air, since the space 
between each soil particle is necessarily filled with air. (6) 
Cultivation destroys weeds. (7) Cultivation prevents the 



SHALLOW AND DEEP CULTIVATION 69 

washing of the soil. By filUng up the Uttle gulleys and the 
ditches, which are washed out during a rain, they are pre- 
vented from increasing in size, and thus washing to an 
appreciable extent is avoided. (8) Cultivation increases 
the depth of the seed bed. (9) Cultivation offers a means of 
adding green manures and humus to the soil. (10) Cul- 
tivation liberates plant food. This is an excellent means of 
freeing plant food, because the stirring of the soil particles, 
brings together the different elements. Chemical action is 
thus increased and the plant food is liberated, which was 
previously held in combination, with the other elements that 
were not available to the plant. 

Shallow and Deep Cultivation. — ^The depth to which a soil 
can be plowed in order to give the best results must neces- 
sarily vary with the condition and the type of soil. On a 
clay soil or any soil of a heavy type, deep plowing, as a 
rule, should be recommended, while on the sandy or sandy 
loam types of soil, deep plowing is not usually advisable, 
especially if the soil is plowed in the spring. It is con- 
ceded that the longer a soil is cultivated, the deeper and 
the more thoroughly it should be pulverized. The depth of 
plowing is also regulated by the season, the location and 
the time of plowing. Land that has been cropped for a 
series of years should be plowed deeper than new land, but 
this varies somewhat, according to the section of the coun- 
try. It has also been found that deep plowing will give 
better results if it is done in the fall. The depth of plowing 
should fluctuate with different years, one year a little shal- 
low, and the next year a little deeper, and so on. If one 
depth is maintained continuously the pressure of the imple- 
ments in time produces a hard bottom to the furrow, which 
greatly interferes with plant growth. In regions of light 
rainfall, deep plowing should only be done at intervals of 
from four to five years. However, when the rainfall is 
about the average for a good crop, deep plowing should 
usually be the rule on heavy soils. 

Shallow cultivation should be given, as the crops advance, 
and a mulch of fine earth should be kept on the soil. Where 
frequent cultivation is followed, the capillary tubes near the 



70 CULTIVATION AND TILLAGE 

surface of the soil are broken and the direct connection 
of the water in the subsoil with that of the upper layer 
is interrupted. Cultivating prevents the close contact of 
the surface soil with that of the lower layers and destroys 
the passageways for the water to escape into the air and 
be lost. Whenever evaporation from a surface takes place, 
there is a constant movement of the water upward from 
the lower depths, and in order to conserve the supply of 
water this capillary escape of moisture must be prevented. 
This is easily accomplished by maintaining a layer of fine 
earth on the soil. This means that shallow cultivation is 
important in conserving and in holding the soil moisture. 
The depth of the soil mulch must of necessity vary with 
the nature of the soil. On a small scale, a garden rake 
can be used and the pulverization is usually complete, but 
on a large scale a disk or a harrow is commonly employed. 
If a disk harrow is used the disks should be set at an angle. 
The surface cultivation should be 2 or 3 inches in depth. 
The finer the soil is on the surface, the better the moisture 
is held. Shallow surface cultivation should be practised 
in connection with any method of treating the land, whether 
deep plowing, subsoiling or spading. 

Water-holding Capacity of the Soil Influenced by Cultivation. 
— Cultivation not only increases the amount of surface on 
which the plant can feed, but it also enlarges the water 
supply by giving the soil a greater capacity for holding it. 

There are three forms of water found in a soil: (1) Bot- 
tom water is that water which stands in the soil at a general 
level and completely fills all of the spaces between the soil 
particles. Bottom water is only available for the plants, 
when it can be brought up to the higher levels by capil- 
larity. If the general level of the water table is too high 
plants cannot grow, and drainage must be provided. (2) 
Capillary water, which is that water held in a thin film 
around the particles of soil above the bottom water. The 
height to which this water can be raised by capillary action 
depends upon the size and the arrangement of the soil 
particles as well as the type of soil. Ordinarily the capillary 
action of the water is confined to a few feet. In close 



CAPACITY OF SOIL INFLUENCED BY CULTIVATION 71 

texture soils, as the clays, an increase in the air spaces 
results in an increase of the capillary spaces, and conse- 
quently an increase in the water-holding capacity. In 
the coarse sandy soils an increase in the size of the air spaces 
decreases the capillary spaces and consequently decreases 
the water-holding capacity. (3) Hygroscopic water is that 
water which is held mechanically in the soil and which is not 
removed by air drying. This form of water cannot be used 
by the plant. 

All plants are dependent upon the capillary water for 
their growth. The amount of capillary water which a 
soil can hold depends upon the total surface area repre- 
sented by the soil particles. It is therefore apparent that 
the loosening of the ground and the breaking up of the 
soil particles during cultivation makes it easier for the 
rain to enter the soil. Likewise the larger surface presented 
by the greater number of soil particles, increases the amount 
of water that the soil will hold. The loose soil also tends 
to prevent loss of the water by surface drainage. 

The capillarity and consequently the moisture content of 
the soil is materially influenced by the different methods 
of cultivation, such as deep or shallow plowing, subsoiling, 
rolling or disking. The treatment adapted to insure the 
best water supply, must vary with the rainfall, the nature 
of the soil, and the crop in question. In many sections 
the rainfall is ample to produce a good crop, but it is dis- 
tributed so unevenly that all of the water cannot be utilized 
by the crop at the time it falls. A great amount of this 
water is lost if it is not properly handled and stored in the 
subsoil for the future use of the plants. By judicious and 
systematic cultivation the greater percentage of this mois- 
ture can be conserved and used for the growing of the 
plants. Cultivating after a rain is most essential for the 
proper conservation of the soil moisture. This cultivation 
should be given as soon after the rain as the soil can be 
worked. When evaporation is allowed to take place after 
a rain, there is not only a loss of water which has just fallen, 
but there is a loss in the upper layer of soil as well. In 
addition to these losses there may also be a loss of the water 



72 CULT I VA TION AND TILLAGE 

in the subsoil by translocation. The best means of pre- 
venting the loss of water is by cultivating the ground with 
implements that will break up the soil as soon as possible 
after a rain has fallen. Such a cultivation at the proper 
time will leave the surface in a fine condition and will check 
the evaporation of water from the ground. 

If the subsoil contains an ample amount of water, and 
there is a minimum amount in the surface soil, a movement 
of the subsoil water after a rain frequently occurs. This 
movement is brought about by the capillarity of the soil, 
and the surface tension of the film of water about each soil 
particle becomes greater with the increase of the water in 
the surface soil. 




Fig. 19.— a general purpose plow. (International Harvester Company 
of America.) 

Spring Versus Fall Plowing. — Plowing is the process of 
breaking up the soil and reducing it to a finer state of divi- 
sion. Much depends upon this process. The difference 
between loss and gain is sometimes found in the time a 
soil is plowed. This difference is made possible because 
the water-holding capacity of a soil is regulated largely by 
the state of fineness to which it is reduced. It is a well- 
recognized fact that crops cannot grow and develop with- 
out the proper amount of water. This water is increased 
if the plowing is done at the proper time and the water 
content can largely be controlled in this manner. 

Certain t}npes of soil will admit of fall plowing and they 
will be greatly improved both in their physical proper- 
ties as well as in their water-holding capacity. Soils that 



SPRING VERSUS FALL PLOWING 



73 



respond to this treatment are the heavier types, as the 
clays. Fall plowing, if followed by surface cultivation, 
conserves the water by checking the evaporation, and the 
land is left in a better condition to retain the moisture. 
When fall plowing is done it will be found to be generally 
better to delay the surface cultivation until the following 
spring, especially on heavy clay land. If clay land is left 
ridged, when fall plowed, an irregular surface is exposed, 
and the rain is held in the furrows and a better opportunity 
is given for the water to sink into the subsoil. 




Fig. 



20. — The Osborne disk harrow. (International Harvester Company 
of America.) 



When the soil is not plowed until in the spring there is a 
greater loss of water by evaporation during the winter and 
early spring. Besides the loss of water by evaporation the 
soil has not been able to store up as much water from the 
rains and the snows during the winter, because it has been 



74 CULTIVATION AND TILLAGE 

packed down, and a large percentage of the water has been 
lost by surface drainage. Again if spring plowing is prac- 
tised the dry soil is turned under and the moist soil is exposed, 
so that if a mulch is not immediately formed by cultiva- 
tion a great deal of the moisture is lost by the exposure of 
the soil to the sun and the dry winds. 

Bacterial Action of the Soil Influenced by Cultivation. — In 
all soils there are two bacterial processes continually going, 
on, namely, nitrification and denitrification. Nitrification 
is the process by which the nitrates and the nitrites are 
produced in the soil by minute living organisms. These 




Fig. 21. — The Osborne siilky spring-tooth harrow. 

organisms are called bacteria and are very small, microscopic 
plants. Nitrification results in the changing of the com- 
plex organic nitrogen in the soil into other forms that can 
be used by the plants. In order that this process can be 
carried on successfully by the nitrifying bacteria, six funda- 
mental conditions are necessary: (1) Moisture, (2) oxygen, 
(3) favorable temperature, (4) absence of sunlight, (5) 
nitrifying bacteria, (6) some compound on which the bac- 
teria can work. All of these conditions must be maintained. 
Cultivation, particularly of the heavier types of soil, favor 
nitrification by increasing the amount of air in the soil, 



BACTERIAL ACTION OF THE SOIL 



75 



76 CULTIVATION AND TILLAGE 

by making the soil warmer, and by aiding in hastening the 
chemical processes. 

Denitrification is the reverse of nitrification, and is the 
result of the working of a class of bacteria that break down 
the nitrates, setting free nitrogen, which passes off as a gas. . 
The condition necessary for this class of organisms to work 
is the absence of air, and when frequent thorough cultiva- 
tion is given and the soil is well aerated these bacteria 
perish. So it follows that the best way of eradicating these 
injurious bacteria is to maintain thorough and complete 
cultivation. Besides destroying the denitrifying bacteria 
more plant food is made available by increasing and by 
stimulating the reproduction and the growth of the friendly 
nitrifying organisms. 




Fig. 23. — A single horse adjustable cultivator. 

Implements for Cultivation. — The implements for cultiva- 
tion may briefly be summed up as follows: (1) The plows, 
of which there are the walking plow, the sulky plow, the 
gang plow, the disk plow, and the steam plow; (2) the 
harrows, of which there are the smoothing harrow, the 
spring-tooth harrow, the disk harrow, the cut away disk 
harrow, the spading harrow, and the plow cut-disk harrow; 



REVIEW QUESTIONS 



77 



(3) the rollers, of which there are the smooth iron roller, 
the tubular roller, the clod crusher, the subsurface packer, 
and the common planker; (4) the cultivators, which are 
classified into the single- and the double-shovel cultivators, 
the horse and the hand cultivators. In addition to the 
above we can mention the garden spades, rakes, and hose. 
All of these implements and tools are for the purpose of 
putting the soil in the best possible condition as well as 
maintaining the conditions necessary for plant growth. 




Fig. 24. — An eight-shovel riding cultivator. 



REVIEW QUESTIONS. 



1. What is cultivation? 

2. Is there any difference between cultivation and tillage? 

3. Why is cultivation important? 

4. Is it important to cultivate at a given time? 

5. What are the objects of cultivation? 

6. Discuss how cultivation aids in holding water in the soil. 

7. How does cultivation increase the bacterial action in the soil? 

8. Discuss how cultivation liberates plant food. 

9. What is meant by deep and shallow cultivation? 



78 CULTIVATION AND TILLAGE 

10. What is meant by bottom water, capillary water, and hygroscopic 
water? 

11. Which kind of water can be used by the plant? 

12. When should you practise deep and shallow plowing? 

13. Why is it necessary to vary the depth of plowing? 

14. How can we check evaporation from the soil? 

15. Discuss spring and fall plowing. 

16. What is meant by bacterial action in the soil? 

17. Name the two processes that go on in the soil that are due to bacteria. 

18. Discuss the conditions necessary for nitrification. 



CHAPTER V. 
PLANT PROPAGATION. 

Plant propagation is the multiplication and reproduc- 
tion of plants. There are two distinct kinds of reproduction, 
namely, sexual and vegetative. (1) Sexual reproduction 
is the multiplication of plants in which the male and the 
female elements enter into the formation of a new and a 
distinct individual as found in the seed. Most seed of 
economic importance therefore are the result of asexual 
union of the male and the female cell. (2) Vegetative or 
asexual reproduction is the multiplication of plants in which 
the sex elements play no part. It is simply the continuation 
of the growth of the parent plant in a new location with 
only the one parent concerned. 

Vegetative reproduction is without doubt a most important 
form of propagation. It is used in the perpetuation of many 
plants, especially those in which the exact parental form is 
desired. The different kinds of vegetative reproduction may 
be enumerated as follows: (1) Hardwood cuttings, (2) soft- 
wood cuttings, (3) leaf cuttings, (4) root cuttings, (5) layers, 
(6) suckers, (7) stolons, (8) tubers, (9) budding and (10) 
grafting. In addition several specialized forms are also 
recognized. 

Vegetative propagation can be divided into two great 
classes: (1) Propagation by parts intact by which is meant 
that the part of the plant which is selected for propagation 
is not separated from the parent until the organs needed 
to make it self-supporting are formed, as, for example, layers, 
suckers and stolons; (2) propagation by parts detached, 
by which is meant that the part of the plant which is intended 
for propagation is cut from the parent at the beginning and 
is placed under favorable conditions, so that the formation of 



80 PLANT PROPAGATION 

the organs needed to make it self-supporting takes place. 
Examples of propagation by parts detached are seen in all 
cuttings, in budding and in grafting. 

Bulbs. — Bulbs of all kinds are specialized buds. They are 
composed of a short rudimentary axis closely encased in 
thickened leaves or bulb scales. A bulb is also a more or 
less permanent and a compact leaf bud, which is usually 
found at the base of the stem. It is subterranean. Roots 




25. — ^Bulbs of the tulip, hyacinth and onion. 



are always sent out from its base. The thickened bulb 
scales are stored with food, which is used during the sub- 
sequent growth of the plant. Bulbs usually occur in plants 
that are subject to a long period of inactivity and a short 
period of growth. 

Bulbous plants are propagated most easily by means of 
little bulbs, which are borne about the mother bulb. These 
small bulbs are often called hulhels or offsets, and are usually 



RHIZOMES 



81 



borne near the base of the parent bulb. In some of the HHes 
the bulbels form at the top or crown of the parent bulb; in 
other cases they form on the lower part of the flower stalk, 
while in still others they are always borne beneath the scale 
leaves of the parent. Bulbels vary greatly in their size and 
niuiiber in the different species. 

Corm. — A corm is a short, thick and fleshy stem which is 
solid throughout. A vertical axis fills the center. The corm 
is covered with a few thin, scaly 
leaves. Corms are always sub- 
terranean. In general shape and 
appearance a corm resembles a 
bulb. Common examples of a 
corm are the gladiolus, the crocus, 
the cyclamen, and the Indian 
turnip. The corms of the differ- 
ent species often behave quite, 
differently. The corms of the 
gladiolus and the crocus are re- 
produced annually upon the top 
and at the sides of the parent. 
As a rule a new corm is produced 
above the old one each year, 
which commonly bears flowers 
the following year. 

Rhizomes. — ^Rhizomes are sub- 
terranean stems bearing scale 
leaves. They grow more or less 
horizontally and the internodes 
vary in length and in thickness; 
they bear roots at the nodes. 
Every species has a type of rhi- 
zome peculiar to itself. Familiar examples of rhizomes are 
the slender root stocks of the mints and the thick, fleshy ones 
of the canna and the iris. Rhizomes are easily distinguished 
from roots by the leaf scales in the axils of which are borne 
buds. In the majority of cases the buds of a rhizome are 
exceedingly tenacious of life, making the plants bearing them 
difficult to destroy and the propagation of the plant extremely 
6 




Fig. 26. 



-Side and top views 
of a corm. 



82 PLANT PROPAGATION 

simple, l^lants bearing rhizomes are propagated either 
by separating naturally at the close of the growing season, 
or by being divided into as many parts as there are buds. 
Each part of the rhizome bearing a bud will develop into a 
new plant. The divided parts are treated in much the same 
way as bulbs. However, a little experience is necessary in 
their management if the best results are to be expected. 

Tubers. — A tuber is the localized thickening of a shoot. 
It is usually subterranean and is rarely ever found above 
ground. Tubers bear scale leaves which are analogous to 
the leaves on ordinary stems. The scale leaves are small 
and insignificant and sometimes are not recognized in 
mature specimens. The scale leaves are always at some 
distance from each other, and they never overlap. The 
buds, which develop in the axils of the miniature scale 
leaves, are called eyes. These are indicated on the tuber 
by ridges or lines of protuberance. Generally, tubers are 
extremely perishable organs, and they can only carry the 
life of the plant from one season to the next. Plants bear- 
ing tubers are easily transported long distances because of 
the reduced and compact form. 

Tubers reproduce themselves by offshoots. A fully 
formed tuber becomes detached from the upper part of the 
plant by the decay of the slender stem. This connection 
of the tuber with the parent has previously supplied it with 
food. After varying periods of rest a stem springs from the 
eyes of the new tubers, and these in turn bear tubers similar 
in structure to those of the parent. 

Propagation by tubers is extremely simple. It consists 
either in planting the whole tuber or a portion of it, each 
part of which must contain an eye or a bud. 

Procumbent Stems. — A procumbent stem is a stem that 
either droops to the ground or trails over it. Usually the 
habitat of this class of plants will be found to be such that 
erect plants are unable to maintain themselves, and the 
drooping habit is acquired in order that the plant is able 
to live. A poor, sandy soil, a windy hillside, a rocky or 
rough piece of ground is the habitat which is usually found 
where the great majority of these plants are seen growing. 



STOLON 83 

In many cases the trailing stem serves the usual purpose 
of supporting the leaves, but in others the procumbent 
stem becomes a means of perpetuating and distributing the 
species. These stems are usually characterized by the 
buds at the nodes taking root and growing into new plants. 
After the new plant is thoroughly established, the part join- 
ing it to the parent gradually disappears and the new plant 
becomes an independent unit. Procumbent stems differ 
somewhat from the true upright stems, in that they are more 
slender and usually bear little or no foliage. There are two 
distinct types of procumbent stems, the runner and the 
stolon. 

Runner. — ^A runner is a prostrate stem with long internodes 
and destitute of foliage, which grows out from the parent 
plant. It is sometimes spoken of as a slender bud bearing 
procumbent stems. At varying intervals on the stem are 
nodes from which root protuberances are formed when the 
proper stimulus is given. At the tip of the runner, under 
the stimulus of the damp soil, roots develop and a new 
plant begins to grow. When the new plant is well estab- 
lished, the connecting stem usually dies, and an independent 
plant is the result. The strawberry plant furnishes a good 
example of the runner. 

In moist, sandy soils the young plants will usually take 
root without artificial aid, but in hard, heavy soils the 
runners must be kept in contact with the earth either by 
pegging or by laying a weight of some kind on the runner. 

Stolon. — A stolon is a procumbent stem which takes root 
either at the tip or at the node of the stem, and grows into 
a new and an independent plant. A stolon differs from a 
runner in having a more procumbent and a less prostrate 
stem. More foliage and shorter nodes also characterize 
the stolon. Besides the brambles, many of the ornamental 
plants may be multiplied by means of stolons. The black 
raspberry is a good plant to illustrate propagation by the 
use of the stolon. The young raspberry canes at first grow 
erect, but later in their growth the ends of the growing 
shoots bend toward the ground, finally touching it, where 
root protuberances slowly develop and finally roots appear 



84 



PLANT PROPAGATION 



and a new plant is produced. When the cane reaches the 
ground the sthnuhis of the moist soil causes small protuber- 
ances, the beginning of the roots, to form. As the coat act 
of the cane with the soil becomes closer, the roots develop 
more rapidly and as they become stronger and better estab- 
lished the tip of the cane is drawn closely to the ground. 
The following spring and occasionally the same season a 
leafy shoot appears from this tip and, nourished by the root, 
it rapidly grows into a new plant. Through decay and 
subsequent division of the old stem the young plant becomes 
detached and the new plant begins an independent existence. 




Fig. 27. — Mound layering. 



Layer. — A layer is a stem of a plant bent to the ground 
and allowed to take root without being detached from the 
parent plant. It is nothing more than an artificial stolon. 
Occasionally the young shoots from the parent are hilled 
up with soil about their base where they take root. A 
layer differs from a stolon only in the implication that man 
has taken a hand in the process of reproduction to aid nature 
by either bending the branch to the ground or by hilling up 



MOUND LAYERING 85 

the soil around the young shoots. The chief advantage of 
layering lies in the fact that the parent plant supplies water 
and food for the young plants until they are able to sustain 
themselves. It also has the advantage of being an extremely 
simple operation and of being more certain than most of 
the other methods of vegetative propagation. Layering is 
practised chiefly on the • hard-wood plants, because her- 
baceous plants are usually more readily propagated from 
cuttings. Theoretically nearly all of the woody plants can 
be multiplied by layering, but in practice this process is 
confined for the most part to vines or to those plants having 
long, slender shoots. The chief reason for the selection of 
this class of plants is because of the ease in bending. Bending 
is more easily performed on such plants as the brambles, 
the grapes and occasionally the currants. Nevertheless 
many similar plants are often increased by layering, and 
even the apple, the quince and the pear may be so propagated 
if the proper medium is supplied to the layering wood. In 
layering, the roots are not, as a rule, developed in proportion 
to the stem and their place of development is not prede- 
termined, but is fixed by some external agent or stimulant-, 
as for example the contact with moist soil. Warm, moist 
soil wdll act as a stimulus in some species and will induce 
the formation of roots, while in other species and by far the 
greater number, root formation is greatly facilitated by the 
wounding of the stem where the new plant is wanted. Such 
wounding causes adventitious buds to form. 

Mound Layering. — Occasionally the stems of plants cannot 
be readily bent to the ground for layering. In such an 
event a mound of earth is heaped about the plant, which 
stimulates the formation of roots on the previously pre- 
pared shoots, and this is called mound layering. Plants for 
this purpose are usually first prepared by heading back in 
the spring, with the result that a large number of young 
shoots will be produced about the crown of the plant. The 
following summer a mound of earth is placed about these 
young shoots. Rooting will be facilitated if the shoots are 
first injured in some way, as twisting, girdling or ring- 
ing. Each shoot in the stool forms a root system near its 



86 



PLANT PROPAGATION 



base, making in most cases a straight, strong and stalky 
plant. INIomid layering is best adapted to the low-branched 
trees or shrubs that are stiff and erect and will not permit 
bending, as, for example, the English gooseberries or the 
quince. 



-:^ 



III. I ; 111 





I A 



Fig. 28. — Notching, tongueing and ringing. 

Tip Layering. — Plants that have willow-like branches or 
canes similar to those found on the raspberries are propa- 
gated by tip layering. Tip layering is performed by bend- 
ing the cane or branch of the plant down to the ground, 
where it is held in contact with the moist earth by being 
covered with several inches of soil. In a short time roots 
will be formed at the tip of the cane and a new plant will 
start to grow. When the young plant is well established 
the cane is severed and it is removed to a new location. 
Tip layering is so named because the plant is rooted at the 
tip of the branch. 

Trench Layering. — ^Trench layering is performed by digging 
a shallow trench and laying the branch of the plant in the 
bottom of the trench. The entire branch is covered with 
earth except the tip. The tip is allowed to grow out of 
the ground so as to draw the plant food through the portion 
of the branch which is covered. The covered branch should 
first be twisted or ringed so that it is slightly injured. This 



AERIAL LAYERING 



87 



injury will stimulate the plant to send out roots. In some 
plants roots will form at each node, and in a short time 
several young plants will be developed from this branch. 
When the plants are well established, they are cut apart 
and each one set in a new location. 




Fig. 29. — Trench and serpentine layering. 

Serpentine Layering. — The serpentine layer is similar to 
that of the trench layer. It is usually practised on plants 
which have long flexible branches, as the grape. The name 
serpentine is taken from the way the branch is bent. Ser- 
pentine layering is done by bending the branch in an undu- 
lating manner and the roots form from every covered part. 
As soon as the roots develop, the top begins to grow, and 
when the plants are well established they are cut apart and 
set in their new location. 




Fig. 30.— Aerial layering of the oleander. Note the moss is held around 
the branch by a di\'ided flower pot. 



Aerial Layering. — Aerial layering is propagation in which 
no soil is used as a medium in which to root the plants. Aerial 



88 PLANT PROPAGATION 

layering is adapted to such plants as the India rubber plant 
and the oleander. Perhaps the plant which is most often 
propagated by this method is the rubber plant. To per- 
form aerial layering the branch is first wounded by either 
ringing or tongueing. When this operation is finished the 
wounded part is covered up with damp phasgnum moss, 
which is tied around the wounded part. Sometimes a divided 
flower pot is placed around the branch and filled with moss. 
The moss must be damp and never allowed to dry out. It 
usually requires from six to eight weeks before sufficient 
roots have developed to remove the plant from the parent. 
When the roots have filled the moss the branch should be 
cut from the parent below the phasgnum. Set the new plant 
in a pot but do not remove the moss. Fill the pot with good 
soil and set the plant in a shady place for a week or ten 
days and keep the soil moist. 

Time for Layering. — ^The spring, when the growth is the 
most rapid, is considered the most favorable time for lay- 
ering. The operation is much more successful in a moist 
and a warm climate than in a dry or a cold one. Occa- 
sionally it is advisable to make the layer late in the fall 
so that the w^ound may callus over before spring, or that 
bleeding which occurs in some species in the spring may be 
obviated. Layering may easily be practised on many of 
the plants grown about the home. The grape, the currant 
or the gooseberry are easily propagated by layering, and for 
the amateur it is a very satisfactory method. Layering is 
a good method of propagation because the young plant is 
nourished by the parent until the roots are formed. 

Cutting. — A cutting is a detached member of a plant Vvdiich 
is placed in the soil or some other medium to be rooted. 
Cuttings are conveniently divided into four classes with 
respect to the part of the plant from which they are made: 
(1) Tuber cutting, (2) root cutting, (3) stem cutting, (4) 
leaf cutting. 

Tiiher Cidti7u/s. —Tuher cuttings are made by divid- 
ing the tubers into sections containing a bud or an eye. 
The most common example is that of the potato. This 
method of propagation is common in the planting of pota- 



CUTTING 89 

toes. Each tuber is cut into a number of pieces with each 
portion containing one or more eyes. Several other plants 




Fig. 31. — A tuber cutting. 




Fig. 32. — A plant grown from a tuber cutting with the cutting still 
attached. 



90 PLANT PROPAGATION 

are propagated by this means. The essential requisite in 
the tuber cutting is to have an eye in each piece. 

Root Cuttings.- — Many plants can be multiplied with ease 
by means of short cuttings of the root. This is particularly 
true of all species that possess a natural tendency to sucker. 
True root cuttings possess no buds, and the buds develop 
after the cutting is made. The roots are cut into pieces, 
varying from 1 to 3 inches in length and are planted in the 
soil horizontally. Root cuttings thrive better if bottom 
heat is given. Many of our fruit trees, such as the apple, 
the pear, the cherry and the peach, can be easily grown by 
root cuttings, as well as many brambles such as the black- 
berries and the raspberries. However, it is never recom- 
mended that the fruit trees be propagated by root cuttings, 
except only where stocks are w^anted for grafting or budding. 
The horse-radish furnishes a familiar example of propagation 
by root cuttings. This plant is thus propagated in a com- 
mercial way and is practically the only means of securing a 
stand. 

Stem Cuttings. — Stem cuttings are made from the stem 
of a plant. They are divided into three general classes: (1) 
Soft or green-wood cuttings; (2) semihard-wood cuttings; 
(3) hard or mature wood cuttings. The classes gradually 
shade into each other and no hard-and-fast line can be drawn 
between them. 

Green-ivood Cuttings. — A green- or soft-wood cutting is 
made from a plant which is in active growing state. Green- 
wood cuttings are very popular because they strike root 
quickly. Soft-wood cuttings can also be handled very 
easily under glass in the winter, and more species can be 
propagated by this cutting than by the hard-wood cutting. 

A green-wood cutting is sometimes called a slip. The 
term is usually restricted to designate those cuttings which 
may be made by pulling or slipping off of a small shoot. 
The term slip should be discarded since cutting is by far 
the more proper to use. The term slip is also applied to the 
multiplication of plants that are grown in the window gar- 
den. All of the soft-wooded plants and many of the orna- 
mental shrubs may be increased by green-wood cuttings. 



CUTTING 



91 




Fig. 33. — Green-wood cuttings. 




Fig. 34. — Division of a plant. 



92 PLANT PROPAGATION 

Hard-wood Cnttings. — Hard-wood cuttings are made from 
mature and dormant wood of the woody plants. Hard- 
wood cuttings are taken either in the late fall or in the 
winter. They differ from the soft-wood cuttings in having 
no leaves and in bearing buds that are dormant. Hard-wood 
cuttings should be taken from wood of the previous season's 
growth, and they should be shoots of medium size. 

The length of a cutting depends somewhat upon the plant 
as well as upon the length of the internodes. Usually it is 
made 6 inches in length, but in some plants and under some 
conditions the length may vary from 8 to 10 inches. In 
the grape, where a three-eye cutting is used, it must of 
necessity be from 7 to 10 inches in length. On the currant, 
the gooseberry and many of the ornamentals, where the 
internodes are short, it is advisable to make the cutting 6 
inches in length. In taking the cutting it is considered wise 
to make the cut on the proximal end just below a bud 
because it is thought roots will start more readily when cut 
at that point. 

Storing and Handling of Hard-ivood Cuttings. — Cuttings 
made from dormant wood must be gathered in the fall and 
the winter and stored until spring to produce the best results. 
They are usually packed in damp sand and stored in a cellar 
that is cool and moist. Sufficient warmth should be present 
in order to permit the callousing of the ends and to encourage 
root development but not heat enough so that the buds will 
swell. Damp sawdust, clean sand or a loose loam furnish 
the best mediums in which to store the cuttings. They can 
also be buried in the open ground below the frost line. 

Hard-wood cuttings treated in this manner will develop 
root protuberances before any top growth takes place. 
When the cuttings are taken directly from the parent plant 
and placed under conditions that favor leaf growth before 
callousing has taken place the resulting plants will be inferior 
to those which have been allowed to callous over. Just 
why this should occur is not definitely known, except that 
the callousing of the tissue in some way stimulates the forma- 
tion of a good root system, which in turn gives a healthy 
and robust plant. 



CUTTING 93 

Semi-ivood Cuttings. — Semihard-wood cuttings are made 
from wood that is nearly mature. Common examples 
are the roses and the hydrangeas. These cuttings are often 
made in the late summer or the early fall when the buds 
have become fully developed and the wood has partially 
matured. Semihard-wood cuttings occupy a place midway 
between the soft-wood and the hard-wood cuttings. They 
are cut about the same length as the hard-wood cuttings, 
and are not stored but are planted at once in the propaga- 
tion bed. Bottom heat should be provided if the best 
results are to be expected, especially if they are rooted in 
the fall or the winter. Semihard-wood cuttings should not 
be planted too deeply and from IJ to 2 inches is about the 
proper depth. The length of the semihard-wood cuttings 
varies, and ranges from 3 to 5 inches. One leaf is attached 
to each cutting. 

Methods of Handling Soft-tvood Cuttings and Semihard' 
wood Cuttings. — The soft-wood and the semihard-wood cut- 
tings are not handled in the same way as the hard-wood 
cuttings. Since the tissue is soft and green and in a growing 
state, it would be highly injurious to the cuttings if they 
were stored in any way before being planted. Owing to the 
nature of the wood from which they are made it is essential 
for them to be planted directly in the propagating bed as 
soon as they are made. 

The propagation bed is of any convenient size. It some- 
times consists of only a shallow pan or a saucer in which 
some clean, sharp sand has been placed. This is sometimes 
called the saucer method for the propagation of cuttings. 
Flats of any standard size may be used as receptacles for 
holding the sand. The best and the most efficient place to 
construct a propagating bed is in a greenhouse. A given 
amount of greenhouse bench space should be provided and 
filled with clean, sharp sand free from organic matter. It 
is important that no organic matter of any kind is in the 
sand, since this often causes great injury to the cutting by 
rotting. 

The cuttings are placed in the sand of the propagating 
box as soon as they are removed from the plant. When 



94 PLANT PROP AC, AT J ON 

the S()l't-W()()(i cuttings are propagated about two-thirds of 
the leaf surface is removed in order to reduce the transpira- 
tion. It requires from three to six weeks for the cuttings 
to strike root and with some plants even a longer time is 
necessary. Gentle bottom heat is valuable in assisting or 
stinuilating the cuttings to form roots. As soon as roots 
have been formed, the cuttings are potted in small thumb 
pots and shifted to larger sizes as the plants grow. 

REVIEW QUESTIONS. 

1. What two kinds of reproduction occur in plants? 

2. What is sexual reproduction; vegetative reprodu(!tion? 

3. How does sexiuil reproduction differ from vegetative reproduction? 

4. Name ten kinds of vegetative reproduction. 

5. What is a b\ilb? 

(). How are bull)s i)r<)pagated? 

7. How does a corm differ from a bulb? 

X. What is a rhizome; a tul)er? 

9. Differentiate between a rhizome and a procumbent stem. 

10. What is the (lifferen(!e between a runner, a stolon and a layer? 

1 1. What kind of i)lants are usually propagated by stolons and by layers? 

12. What is tip layering and give an example? 

13. Distinguish between a tuber cutting and a root (uitting. 

14. Differentiate between a stem cutting and a leaf cutting. 

15. Discuss the storing of hard-wood cuttings. 

IG. How do scmihard-wood cuttings differ from soft-wood and hard-wood 
cuttings? 

17. Why must soft-wood cuttings be handled differently from hard- 
wood cuttings? 

18. Discuss the planting of soft-wood cuttings. 



CHAPTER VI. 
BUDDING AND GRAFTING. 

BUDDING. 

Propagation by budding consists in placing a bud of the 
desired variety bearing little or no wood under the bark of 
the stock, in such a way that the cambium layer of the bud 
and the stock are in apposition. The bud is a branch bud 
attached to a small piece of bark. The stock is the part 
of the plant on which the bud is placed. The bark of the 
stock is closed over the bud in some cases. In other cases 
the bark is removed entirely, and the bud is tied. firmly to 
the stock. If the operation is successful the bud and the 
stock will fuse together and in due time the bud will grow 
and make a new plant. 

Time to Bud. — The proper time to do budding varies 
greatly with the locality as well as with the plant. It is 
very important when budding to select a season of the year 
when the plant is not growing too rapidly, ii order that 
strangulation of the bud will not take place. Strangulation 
is caused when an abundance of sap is present in the plant 
tissue and after the incision is made for the bud the wound 
bleeds profusely. When the bud is placed in the incision on 
the stock, the flowing out of the sap is so great that it prevents 
the bud from uniting to the stock, and in many cases it is 
washed out of place. 

Budding is performed during the growhig season, but at a 
time when the plant is not too actively growing. Aim to 
select a time when the growth is on its down path after its 
zenith has been reached, and when the plant is beginning 
to prepare itself for the winter. In some se(*tions of the North 
budding is usually performed duruig July, August, or early 



96 



BUDDING AND GRAFTING 



September. In some parts of the South, however, budding 
is done in June and is then known as June budding. 

Cutting of the Bud.— The cutting of the 
bud must be done with great precision. A 
sharp, thin-bladed knife, of which there are 
several styles on the market, is to be pre- 
ferred. Select a budding knife made of the 
best steel, and one that has a circular cut- 
ting end. The curved end of the knife is 
essential for making the incision in the stock. 
In some budding knives the handle runs to 
a thin scalpel at the end, and this part is 
designated for the lifting of the bark on the 
stock. 

The bud is cut about an inch in length. 
In the shield or the prong bud, the budder 
can either cut up or down on the stock. The 
cutting is determined by the inclination of 
the person doing the budding, although the 
upward cut is preferable. In removing the 
bud there is usually a small bit of wood 
that is taken off with it, especially in shield 
and prong budding. There is some differ- 
ence of opinion as to whether or not this 
wood is injurious to the subsequent growth 
of the plant. Where there is a large amount 
of wood left on the bud it should be removed, 
but where only a thin piece exists it can 
remain. The greatest disadvantage of hav- 
ing a small piece of wood attached to the bud 
is that the wood interposes a foreign body 
between the two healing surfaces. In other 
forms of budding no wood should be per- 
mitted to remain on the bud. The edges of 
all buds must be cut even and smooth and 
not left ragged or broken. 

Shield Bud. — Shield budding is perhaps 
the most important kind of budding. It is 
the form most often practised. It takes its 
name from the shield-like shape of the por- 



\ 



Fig. 35. — A 
bud-stick, ^bow- 
ing the metbod 
of cutting the 
buds. 



BUDDING 



97 



tion of bark bearing the bud. It is also called T budding 
because of the T-shaped cut made in the stock for the 
insertion of the bud. This method of budding is also called 
eye budding by some propagators. 



T3T 



Fig. 36.— a good type of non-folding budding knife. 

The bud is cut from the stock by either a downward or an 
upward sloping cut. A sharp knife is necessary in removing 




Fig. 37. — An excellent type of a folding budding knife. 

the bud, and as little of the wood as possible should remain 
attached to the bark. While it has never been proved that 



Fig. 38. — Several views of the bud for shield budding, showing the 
shield-like shape. 



the wood is very injurious, it is apparent that an inert object 
back of the bud would interpose a foreign substance and 
would prevent the complete union of the bud with tlie stock. 
After the bud has been removed it resembles a shield in shape 

7 



BUDDING AND GRAFTING 



and in appearance. It should be from one to one and one- 
half inches in length. 

To practise shield budding a vertical cut is made about 
one and one-half inches in length. On the stock at the point 




\i J 



Fig. 39. — Successive stages in 
shield budding. 



Fig. 40. — Plate budding, showing the 
cut on the stock and the bud. 



where the bud is to be inserted a second cut is made about 
one-half inch in length, and placed near the top of the 
vertical cut and usually at right angles to it. In certain 
sections of the South the transverse cut is made at the 
bottom of the vertical cut, which gives the appearance of 



GRAFTING 99 

an inverted X; while in some other sections of the country 
the cut is made at the top, which forms the letter T in 
an upright position. There is little difference seen in the 
subsequent results no matter what method is used, and it is 
usually left to the individual as to which way the cut is made. 

Plate Bud. — Plate budding is not d very important com- 
mercial form. It is occasionally used on some of the orna- 
mentals and some other rare stocks. Plate budding takes 
its name from the plate-like piece of bark that is cut and 
allowed to hang down in the form of a hinge. Plate budding 
is performed as follows: 

A rectangular incision one-half to three-fourths of an inch 
in width and one to one and one-fourth inches in length 
is cut through the bark on the stock. Three sides of the 
bark are cut, leaving the fourth intact. This method of 
making the incision permits the bark to bend back on the 
fourth side, forming a hinge. The bud is cut rectangular 
in shape to fit the cut made on the stock. No wood should 
be attached to the bark bearing the bud. The bark should 
be cut in such a way that the bud will be closer to the upper 
edge of the bark. The bud is then fitted to the stock and the 
flap of bark on the stock is turned up over the bud and firmly 
tied in place. The cord used for tying should pass around 
the stock underneath the bud, so as not to interfere with 
the subsequent growth of it. In this method of budding 
the bark serves as a protection to the bud until it starts its 
growth. 

GRAFTING. 

• Grafting is the vegetative multiplication of plants. A cion 
which is a twig with one or more buds is inserted into the 
stock of a plant. The cion is usually placed into an incision 
or a cleft in the stock, made for that purpose. Grafting 
is divided into several different t\^es. Each type is desig- 
nated by the way in which the stock and the cion are joined. 
It is also classified with reference to the position of the 
union upon the plant. 

Four general classes of grafting are usually made with 
reference to the position of the cion on the stock: (1) Top 



100 BUDDING AND GRAFTING 

grafting, which is the grafting in the top or in the branches 
of the tree. Under this head is usually included cleft and 
bark grafting. (2) Stem grafting, which is the grafting in the 
trunk or the main stem of the tree. Under this head is 
included side grafting and sometimes bridge grafting. (3) 
Crown grafting, which is the grafting performed at or near 
the crown of the plant, just at the surface of the ground. 
(4) Root grafting, which is the grafting done entirely upon 
the roots, or in which the stock is a root. For the purpose 
of description the best classification is that which considers 
the ways of making the union. There are many modifica- 
tions of each form of grafting and only the most important 
types are discussed. 

Purpose and Value of Grafting. — Grafting as w^ell as budding 
is used to perpetuate and to propagate a known variety 
of a plant which may be either a fruit or ornamental. It 
is a vegetative means of plant multiplication in which a 
plant of known quality is propagated in a commercial way. 
It is of great value, because it enables the grower to multiply 
and to increase a good variety, which might be lost if propa- 
gation by seed was undertaken. Grafting is also of value 
because the grower is sure just what his new plant is going 
to be and he knows for a certainty that the new plant will 
be like the parent plant. 

Uses of Grafting. — Grafting is used for several reasons, of 
which some of the most important are: (1) To perpetuate a 
known variety. This is the most important use of grafting. 
(2) To increase the ease and the speed of multiplication of 
plants. (3) To produce some radical change in the habit 
and the nature of the two parts. Grafting will modify the 
stature of a plant. It is the most common means of dwarfing 
trees. The pear is dwarfed by grafting it upon the quince, 
and the apple by grafting it on the dwarf paradise stock. 
(4) Grafting may be used to adapt plants to adverse soils. 
A common example is seen when the plum is grafted on the 
peach so that the plum can be grown on a sandy soil, and 
vice versa. (5) Grafting may be used to correct a poor habit 
of growth, as, for example, the Canada Red apple which 
has a straggling habit of growth, is grafted on some straight 



GRAFTING 101 

growing tree, as the Tolman Sweet. (6) Grafting is a means 
of hastening fruitfulness. It has been demonstrated that 
cions placed in old and mature trees will bear earlier than 
if they are placed in young growing trees. (7) Grafting in 
some cases will modify the color of the foliage, the fruit 
and the flowers of certain plants. (8) Grafting increases the 
size of certain fruits, as, for example, the fruit of a few 
varieties of pears is larger when grafted on the quince than 
when grown on the standard trees. 

Cion. — A cion is a twig taken from a tree which is to be 
used for grafting. The size is determined by the method 
of grafting, and by the quantity of available grafting wood. 
Cions vary in size from one bud to six or seven buds and in 
some cases even more. The latest work on grafting, however, 
would indicate that the number of buds should be either 
three or four. Taking this number of buds as a basis, the 
length of the cion would vary from three to five inches. 

The cions can be collected any time in the fall after the 
leaves have fallen, or in the spring. It is thought better, 
however, either to cut them from the tree before they have 
frozen, or to wait until they have thoroughly thawed out. 
It is sometimes injurious to cut the cions from the trees while 
they are frozen. In case the cions are not used for root 
grafting, and have to be held over winter they must be care- 
fully stored in a cellar. The best way to do this is to cut the 
cions from the varieties selected, tie them in bundles, label 
each bundle carefully and cover them with damp sand or 
sawdust, then place them in a cool cellar. The temperature 
must be low enough so the buds will not start into growth. 
About 35° F. is a good temperature to maintain in storing 
the cions. The cions should not be permitted to freeze or 
to dry out while in storage. 

The cions should always be cut from healthy mature trees. 
Only the best twigs from the current season's growth should 
be selected. Wood that is two years old is occasionally used 
but never recommended, where the best results .are desired. 
While the. two-year-old wood will occasionally grow it will 
never produce as good plants as the younger wood. Occa- 
sionally, well-matured water sprouts are used, but this kind 



102 BUDDING AND GRAFTING 

of wood is not recommended unless it is impossible to get 
enough of the better wood. The growth at the tips of the 
branches of a mature tree is by far the best cion wood, and 
whenever it is possible wood of this kind should be chosen. 
Stock.^ — The stock used in grafting is that part of the plant 
into which the cion is placed. It varies in size and in age. 
Sometimes the stock is a small root, other times it is a small 
twig, occasionally it is a trunk of a tree, and sometimes 
it is a branch one or two inches in diameter. Therefore 
the size or the age of the stock is determined by the kind of 
grafting. If the best results in grafting are expected, the 
stock should be in good condition, so that growth will start 
at the proper season. 




Fig. 41. — The splice graft. 

Splice Graft. — Splice grafting is the most simple kind of 
grafting. As its name signifies, it is nothing more nor less 
than the splicing together of two plants, both of which are 
about the same size. One part is called the stock and the 
other part is called the cion. To make this graft, the cion 
and the stock are each cut diagonally across and the two cut 
surfaces are placed in contact with each other. The diagonal 
cut should be from one to one and one-half inches in length. 
The tw^o parts should be placed so that the cambium layer in 
each piece is in contact at one or more points. The two pieces 
are then tied together firmly with grafting cord, and occa- 
sionally they are waxed over. Splice grafting is commonly 
employed on such plants that have soft and tender wood 
which will not split without injury to the parts. 

Tongue Graft. — The tongue graft is very similar to that of 
the splice graft, and it might be regarded as a modification 
of it. In the tongue graft a split is made in addition to the 
diagonal cut of the splice graft. The split in the two parts 
ensures them of being held more firmly together. This form 
of grafting is also called whip grafting, and the expression 



GRAFTING 



103 



of tongue and whip grafting is often heard. Tongue grafting 
is employed only upon small stocks, and in the majority ^of 
cases a seedling root is the stock which is used for this kind 
of grafting. The tongue or whip graft is 
very important in the propagation of nurs- 
ery stock, because it is easily made, and 
usually a good percentage of the grafts 
grow. This graft is used almost univer- 
sally in root grafting. When selecting 
the root for the stock, all knots or shoulders 
should be avoided, because they will inter- 
fere with the work. 

To make the tongue or whip graft, select 
stocks and cions which are of one size. 
The same size for each part is not abso- 
lutely necessary but very convenient. Cut 
both the cion and the stock diagonally 
across. The diagonal cut should be from 
one and one-half to two inches in length. 
One-half inch from the end on the diagonal 
cut make a slit about one-half inch in length 
on both the stock and the cion. Do not 
split either the cion or the stock, because 
that will leave a rough surface, and the two 
parts will not fit together tightly. The 
stock and the cion are now fastened together 
by shoving the tongue of the cion into the 
cleft of the stock. The two parts are held 
together by tying them firmly with graft- 
iag cord or with raffia. In nursery work 
a method often employed is to firmly force 
the two parts together without tying; and 
pack them carefully in boxes. The grafts 
should then be covered with sand. By 
careful handling, the two parts will callous 
over and become united and a strong union will be made 
before the time arrives to plant the grafts. 

Root grafting is usually performed in the winter when 
other work is scarce. After the grafts are made they are 



Fig. 42. — A 
piece-root whip 
and tongiie graft. 



104 



BUDDING AND GRAFTING 



stored away in a cool cellar, and usually covered with sand 
until the following spring, w^hen they are set out in the 
nursery row. A temperature of about 35° to 40° F. is 
required for storing the grafts. In tongue or whip grafting 

the cion usually bears from three 
to four buds. The number of 
buds, however, is also determined 
by the section of the country in 
w^hich the grafting is done. When 
root grafting is performed in the 
northern sections where winter 
killing is apt to occur, sometimes 
long cions taken from trees that 
are acclimated to that region 
are used. Cions eight or ten 
inches long are used in these 
regions because they can be 
planted deep, and roots will 
finally develop on the cion. In 
such a case if the stock of the 
graft is winter killed the plant 
will still grow. The piece of 
root on w^hich the grafting is 
done acts as a temporary sup- 
port and aids the plant to get 
started. 

Saddle Graft.— Saddle graft- 
ing is usually employed upon 
herbaceous plants or plants that 
have thick fleshy tissue like the 
cacti. It is very convenient 
for grafting small plants. In 
making the saddle graft the cion 
is split near the middle. The stock is then cut wedge- 
shape by two draws of the knife, and the cion fitted over 
the wedge and secured in some way. In the grafting of 
cacti by this method it is the common practice to use one 
of the spines to hold the two parts together. The union of 
the two parts will soon take place. In woody plants the 




Fig. 43. — A root graft after 
one year. Note the union in 
the longitudinal section. 



GRAFTING 105 

graft is tied in the same manner as the splice or the tongue 
graft. Occasionally the joint is waxed over. The saddle 
graft is employed principally when a terminal bud is used. 



Fig. 44. — An excellent grafting chisel, showing the first position in the cleft 

graft. 

Cleft Graft. — Cleft grafting is preeminently the form of 
grafting that is the most popular in the top working of trees. 
It can be successfully used on limbs up to about two inches 
in diameter, but it is not considered valuable for use on larger 




Fig. 45. — The second position of the grafting chisel in the cleft graft. 

limbs. WhcQ the cion is placed in larger limbs the pressure 
of the two parts of the stock is so great that the cion is 
crushed. To make a cleft graft the limb is selected and 



106 



BUDDING AND GRAFTING 



sawed off squarely. It is then carefully split with a grafting 

chisel. If no grafting chisel is available, fairly satisfactory 

work can be done with a 

wood chisel of the proper 

size. In cutting the stock 

select a place free from 

knots, because a clean 

straight cut will not result 

if the chisel strikes a knot in 

the wood. 

The remaining 2)ortio7i of 
the limh after the top is cut 
offiscalledthe"stub:' The 
stub is usually large enough 





Fig. 46.— The cleft graft with the 
cions in position. 



Fig. 47. — Tlie bark graft with the cions 
in position and the stub waxed. 



to accommodate two cions. Occasionally under certain cir- 
cumstances, four cions are placed in a stub, but this is the 
exception rather than the rule. 

The cions are cut wedge-shape at the base and are inserted 



GRAFTING 107 

into the cleft made in the stub. The cions bear from two 
to four buds, but the number usually preferred by most 
grafters is three. The cions are cut by two draws of the 
knife, and one side should be slightly narrower than the 
other. This double wedge aids in holding the cion more 
securely in the stub. The narrow side of the cion should 
face toward the center of the stock. To insert the cions 
in the stub, first spread apart the two halves of the stub 
by means of the wedge on the grafting chisel. In placing 
the cions in the stock, the utmost care must be exercised to 
see that the inner bark of the cion and the stock come in 
contact with each other, so that the cambium layers of the 
two parts are together. The matching of the cambium layer 
of the cion and the stock is made more certain if the cions 
are slanted outward at a slight angle. The cions should 
be forced into the cleft to the first bud and sometimes deeper. 
The wedge should be made from one to one and one-half 
inches in length, and fit snugly into the cleft. 

After the cions are placed in the stub and properly adjusted, 
the cut surfaces should be covered with grafting wax. The 
wax should extend over the stub for a quarter of an inch. 
Fill the split along each side of the stub with wax in order 
to prevent infection of any kind entering the stub. The 
bark graft is similar to that of the cleft graft, except the 
cions are placed between the bark and the wood. Bark 
grafting is used on larger limbs than cleft grafting. 

Bridge Graft. — ^The bridge graft is considered a form of 
bark grafting. Bridge grafting is not used as much as its 
value would warrant. The purpose of the bridge graft 
differs somewhat from that of the other forms of grafting 
already enumerated. The bridge graft has for its chief 
purpose the preservation of a tree, rather than the propaga- 
tion of it. The principal use of the bridge graft is to preserve 
and to save trees which have been either girdled by rodents, 
such as mice or rabbits, or to repair trees that have been 
injured by cultivating implements. To use this graft the 
injured portion of the tree must first be cleaned out. AH 
of the ragged edges must be made smooth. The bruised 
parts must be cut back to the firm bark. In order to loosen 



108 



BUDDING AND GRAFTING 



the bark so the cions can be inserted, a longitudinal slit 
should be made both above and below the wounded area, at 
the points where the cions are to be placed. The edge of 
the bark should be slightly raised to give a point of entrance 
for the end of the cion. The cions must be cut two inches 
longer than the space to be bridged. Each end of the cion 
is bevelled off on one side, and the bevelled face is placed 




Fig. 48. — Bridge grafting of a wounded trunk. 



against the wood of the limb. The cions are placed from one 
and one-half to two inches apart. When the cions are in 
place the whole surface should be covered with grafting 
wax. 

Top Working of a Tree. — ^The cleft graft and the bark 
graft are the two forms of grafting used in the top working 
of large trees. The cleft graft is by far the most important 
and it is principally used in working over old trees. It is 



GRAFTING 



109 



preferable to graft the smaller limbs which are better suited 
to cleft grafting than to bark grafting. 

The top working of a tree is very important in many 
instances. It enables the grower to change^ an inferior 
sort to a good variety, after the tree has come into bearing. 
Occasionally it is desirable to change a given variety after 
the tree has become large. Top working the tree by cleft 




Fig. 49. — An apple tree top worked by cleft grafting. 

grafting is the only practical method. Sometimes varieties 
are sterile and it becomes necessary to graft other fertile 
varieties into these barren trees before any fruit will set. 

Whenever top working is practised to any great extent, 
it is necessary to extend the operation over a period varying 
from three to five years. A period of this length is necessary 
because when a tree is severely headed back the balance 
between the top and the root is broken. As a result of this 



no BUDDING AND GRAFTING 

unbalanced condition a large number of water sprouts will 
be formed. The excess number of water sprouts can be 
prevented if a few limbs are grafted each year. This practice 
enables the plant to maintain a better equilibrium and there- 
fore furnishes better growing conditions for the grafts. 

Grafting Waxes. — ^There are three distinct kinds of grafting 
waxes: (1) Beeswax and resin waxes, (2) Pitch waxes, (3) 
Alcoholic waxes. Within each kind of wax there are many 
modifications, determined largely by the varying proportion 
of the ingredients. The beeswax and resin wax is generally 
used, because it is simple to make and is composed of mate- 
rials that are easy to procure. 

BEESWAX AND KESIN WAXES. 

Formula 1. 

Resin 4 pounds 

Beeswax 2 " 

Rendered beef tallow 1 " 

Place the ingredients in a granite or an iron kettle and melt 
them until they are thoroughly incorporated. Remove the 
kettle from the fire and allow the mass to cool slightly, after 
which pour it directly into a vessel containing cold water. 
As soon as the mass is cool enough to handle, remove it from 
the water and work it with the hands until it assumes a 
light brownish, or a creamish color. The wax should now 
be made into balls of any convenient size and each ball 
wrapped in oiled paper until it is used. 

The hands are first greased with tallow when working the 
grafting wax. The tallow prevents the sticking of the wax 
to the hands. 

Where a very hard wax is wanted, and especially in the 
warmer sections of the country, a larger quantity of resin 
should be added to the mixture. 

PITCH WAXES. 
Formula 2. 

Resin 2 pounds 

Burgundy pitch 1 " 

Rendered beef tallow ^ " 

Red ochre 1 " 



REVIEW QUESTIONS 111 

Place the resin and the white pitch into a granite or an 
iron vessel and melt them. Melt the beef tallow in a separate 
vessel and add it while hot to the other melted mass. Now 
slowly stir the red ochre into the mixture. This can be 
used either hot or cold. 

Alcoholic Waxes. 
lefort's liquid grafting wax. 

Formula 3. 

Resin 1 pound 

Rendered beef tallow 1 ounce 

Alcohol 8 ounces 

REVIEW QUESTIONS. 

1. What is propagation by budding? 

2. When is the proper time to perform budding? 

3. Discuss the cutting of the bud. 

4. Discuss the groT\i;h of the bud after it is inserted in the stalk. 

5. Differentiate between the shield and the plate bud. 

6. Tell why shield budding is the most important form oi budding. 

7. Differentiate between grafting and budding. 

8. What is the purpose and the value of grafting? 

9. What is meant by the terms cion and stock? 

10. Discuss the uses of grafting. 

11. When is tongue grafting usually performed? 

12. What is the difference between cleft and bark grafting? 

13. Where is the bridge graft employed? 

14. Discuss the top working of trees. 

15. Give one formula for each kind of grafting wax. 



CHAPTER VII. 

THE PESTS OF CULTIVATED PLANTS. 

The great damage done to the crops grown both in the 
home as well as in the commercial garden is caused by several 
classes of pests. These pests, briefly stated, are: (1) insects, 
(2) plant diseases, (3) physiological troubles, (4) predaceous 
animals. 




Fig. 50. — Southern cabbage worm, showing complete metamorphosis. 
a, adult; h, egg mass; d, larva or worm; e, cocoon. (Chittenden, United 
States Department of Agriculture.) 

Few people realize the enormous loss due to these enemies, 
chiefly because many growers are neither familiar with the 
injury by the insects, nor do they see the small microscopic 
parasitic plants which sap the vitality from the growing 
host. The injury usually develops slowly, and when it is 
discovered it is too late to remedy the damage. Many 
people, who are close observers, know their plants are not 
doing as well as they should, but they are not familiar enough 
with the habits of the insects or appearance of the plant 
diseases to correctly diagnose the trouble. 



INSECTS 



113 



INSECTS. 

The insects are divided into three groups: (1) the biting 
or chewing insects, (2) the boring insects, (3) the sucking 
insects. 

In order to understand insect injury, the reader must first 
know the various stages of the hfe history through which 
insects pass. The changes in the Hfe of an insect are known 
as metamorphosis. Complete and incomplete metamor- 
phosis are recognized in the life of the different insects. 





Fig. 51. — Showing the successive stages of the squash bug which is the 
incomplete metamorphosis. (Folsom.) 

Complete metamorphosis means that the insect passes 
through four complete changes during its life. Beginning 
with the adult, we arrange the stages in the life history 
in the following order: (1) the egg stage, (2) the larva stage, 
(3) the pupa stage, (4) the adult stage. The adult lays the 
egg from which hatches the little worm or the larva. The 
worm eats the plant upon which it is placed, continues to 
grow larger and to consume more of the plant tissue until 
it finally reaches its full growth. When this feeding period 
is finished, the worm goes into a quiescent stage, and this 
stage is called the pupa. During the pupa stage the insect 



114 PESTS OF CULTIVATED PLANTS 

does no damage, but remains quiet while internal changes 
are taking place, and an entire reorganization of its body 
goes on. When the transformation period is complete the 
insect emerges from the pupa case or the cocoon as a full- 
grown insect, as, for example, a butterfly, a moth, or a 
beetle. These forms are called the adults. By far the 
greatest damage which is done by most of the insects is in 
the lar^'a or the worm stage, but a few adult insects do great 
damage. It is because of this change in the form of an 
insect that it becomes imperative for the grower to know 
the life history of an insect before adequate measures of 
control can be used. 

Incomplete metamorphosis is, as the term signifies, an 
incomplete change in the development of an insect. The 
adult form is reached without going through the four stages 
necessary in complete metamorphosis. In incomplete meta- 
morphosis the insect completes its life history without 
radical changes in its form. The insect hatches from the egg 
into a form resembling the adult, although considerably 
smaller and without wings. It begins to feed at once on its 
food plant and continues to feed for a longer or a shorter 
period of time, going through several moults, in which it sheds 
its skin when it gets too large for the old one. After passing 
through several of these moults, the number being determined 
by the species and the food supply, the nymph becomes an 
adult. Such insects as the common grasshopper, the cock- 
roaches, the bugs, and several more belong to this class. 

The growth of insects with incomplete metamorphosis Is 
somewhat different from those with complete metamorphosis. 
It is a known fact that the skin of an insect hardens, due to 
the presence of a horny substance known as chitin. This 
hardening usually occurs to a greater extent in the adults 
than in the young. However, in all insects with incomplete 
metamorphosis the skin soon becomes so firm that it cannot 
stretch, and consequently this hardening prevents any 
more growth from taking place. The result is that the skin 
becomes too small, and it must be shed before the insect can 
grow. As the old skin grows hard a new skin forms under it 
and the old hardened skin splits and bursts open, permitting 



INSECTS 115 

the insect to crawl out, clothed in a new skin which stretches 
for a short time. This new skin finally hardens again, and 
the process must be repeated. After several such moults, 
the insect reaches the adult stage and never passes through a 
quiescent or a pupa stage, but always resembles the parent. 

Control Measures for Insects. — Insecticides are used for the 
control or the prevention of insect injury. An insecticide 
may be defined as a chemical, either liquid or powder, that 
is used for the killing or the repelling of insects. An insecti- 
cide should be applied to the plant before any great amount 
of damage is done. 

Insecticides are divided into two classes, according to the 
way in which they control the insect, and based upon the 
manner in which the insect does its feeding upon the plant. 
When the insect devours or eats up the plant it is called a 
chewing or biting insect. It is apparent that if some poison 
is deposited upon the plant where such insects are feeding, 
it will kill the insect enemy. In such case the insect is 
destroyed by the direct effect of the poison acting through 
its digestive tract. The great majority of the insecticides 
used for this purpose contain arsenic as the active poison, 
and it is from this source that the name arsenical insecticide 
has been derived. Paris green and arsenate of lead are the 
most common arsenical poisons for the biting insects. Com- 
mon examples of chewing insects are the cabbage worms, 
the web worms, and all of the caterpillars. 

Besides the eating or the chewing insects there is another 
large class, known as the sucking insects, that is exceptionally 
injurious to growing plants. These are the most injurious 
to the woody plants. Sucking insects cannot be killed by 
any arsenical spray, because they do not eat the plant 
tissue, and consequently it is a waste of time and a needless 
expense to apply arsenical sprays of any kind to the plant. 
Sucking insects, instead of devouring any part of the plant, 
insert their sharp mouth parts, which are constructed in the 
form of a long, narrow, cylindrical tube, through the plant 
tissue and suck out the plant juices. An insect that feeds 
in such a manner cannot be killed by coating the surface of 
the leaves or the stems with any stomach poison, because 



116 PESTS OF CULTIVATED PLANTS 

it is impossible for the poison to reach the stomach of the 
insect. Hence, in order to kill sucking insects, some material 
that will either smother the insect by clogging up the spiracles 
or the openings of the breathing system, or kill it by the 
corrosive action on the body of the insect, must be used. 
Insecticides of this class are called contact insecticides. 
Kerosene emulsion, tobacco sprays, and lime sulphur are 
the most common sprays for the sucking insects. Common 
examples of sucking insects are the scale insects, the plant 
lice, and many others. 

Besides the biting and the sucking insects, a third class 
of insects exists that must be controlled in still another way. 
This group includes those insects that live in the tissue of the 
plant, and hence cannot be reached by either the arsenical 
or the contact insecticides. This class of insects includes 
all forms of borers, which burrow into the plant and spend 
their life within the plant tissue. 

There are two methods for the control of the boring insects, 
namely, by the use of repellents, which are chemicals used to 
prevent the attack of the insect, and by the digging out by 
hand of the insects after they have entered the plant. The 
boring insects can be destroyed by first locating the burrows 
which are usually detected by the exudation of gummy 
material, covered by the che wings and the castings of the 
insect. By the use of a sharp knife the bark can be cut away 
and the larva killed. Another method is to probe in the 
burrows with a piece of wire, thus killing the larva. Com- 
mon examples of the boring insects are the peach tree borer 
and the locust borer. 

Repellents. — ^Repellents are chemicals with unpleasant 
odors. These materials are placed either on the ground 
around the plants or distributed over the plants themselves. 
By the giving off of unpleasant odors they drive the insects 
away and in this manner the plants are saved from destruc- 
tion. Turpentine and carbolic acid are often used as repel- 
lents. These materials are usually mixed with ashes or an}^ 
dry powder and either spread on the ground around the plant 
or dusted over the leaves. Repellents are effective in con- 
trolling the striped cucumber beetle and many other insects. 



PLANT DISEASES 117 

Poisoned Bait. — Poisoned bait is very effective against 
certain kinds of insects, namely, the cutworms. Poisoned 
bait is made by dipping freshly cut clover into a strong 
mixture of Paris green and water or by making a stiff mash, 
composed of 6 pounds of bran to which about J pound of 
Paris green or white arsenic is added. Use only enough 
water to hold the bran together. A small quantity of sugar 
or molasses is added to make it sweet. The bait is* then 
placed in small piles which are scattered around the area to be 
planted. The best results will be secured if the baiting is 
done a few days before the time of planting. 

PLANT DISEASES. 

The diseases that affect the cultivated plants may be 
arbitrarily divided into: fungous diseases, bacterial diseases, 
and physiological troubles. 

As we go more deeply into the nature of the changes which 
take place in the plant which are brought about by disease, 
it is necessary to distinguish between the different kinds. 
A plant may be diseased as a whole, because all or practically 
all of its tissue is in a diseased condition, such as occurs 
when a fungous or a parasitic plant invades all parts of the 
host. Again, a plant may die throughout, because some 
organ which is essential to its life is seriously affected, as for 
example when the roots rot, due to the presence of some 
parasite which hinders the supply of plant food. In a large 
number of cases we find the disease to be purely local and 
never extending into the rest of the tissue beyond that which 
is affected, and which only causes death to the affected part. 

Symptoms of Disease. — Many amateurs and all experienced 
growers know that certain symptoms are present in the sick 
plant as well as in the sick animal. The symptoms in a sick 
plant vary according to the kind of disease. Many symp- 
toms are often present which indicate that the plant is not 
in a healthy condition, and it should be attended to at once, 
but further diagnosis is difficult. 

Generally speaking, a common symptom in a physiological 
trouble is the yellowing of the leaves accompanied by wilting 



118 



PESTS OF CULTIVATED PLANTS 



of the plant. This is usually attributed to the fact that the 
transpiration of water from the leaves is greater than the 
absorption by the roots. A similar condition is also noted 
when insects, such as the cutworms or the wireworms are 

eating the roots, thus 
cutting off the supply 
of food and water and 
causing the plant to turn 
yellow. The yellowing 
of plants also results 
from the presence of 
gases, either in the atmos- 
phere or in the soil. 
This trouble is often 
found in cities where 
leaks occur in the gas 
mains, and it does great 
damage to shade trees 
and to ornamental 
shrubs. Where the root 
and the crown of the 
plant are injured from 
gas it results in the 
improper physiological 
process going on, which 
in turn prevents the 
transpiration of water 
and the entire plant is 
affected. 

The turning brown of 
little patchs on the leaf 
with the dead portion 
finally falling out, leav- 
ing a small hole in the 
leaf, is usually a clear symptom of fungous trouble. The brown 
and the discolored areas on fruit, such as the rots of the apple 
or the peach, are the outward signs of a fungous disease. 
The abnormal swelling of certain portions of some plants 
are indications that they are affected with some organism. 




Fig. 52. — A diseased tomato plant. 



PLANT DISEASES 



m 



Two well-defined examples of abnormal swellings are the 
black knot on the plum or the cherry and the crown gall on 
nursery stock. The sudden wilting of a plant is usually 
indicative of a bacterial trouble, which attacks the plant 
suddenly and cuts off the water supply by clogging up the 
water-carrying ducts or canals. In addition to the symptoms 
of unhealthy plants already mentioned several more exist 
which can easily be detected where the plant is carefully 
studied. 




A diseased fruit. 



Fungous Diseases. — ^These diseases are caused by small, 
microscopic, parasitic plants living upon the tissue and 
sapping the vitality from the host. Some fungous diseases 
spread to all parts of the plants, such as the leaf spot of the 
apple, while others are local and only affect a small portion, 
as the black knot on the plum or the cherry. The greatest 
damage to our cultivated plants may be attributed to the 
fungous diseases, because they are more numerous and aft'ect 
the root, stem, leaves, and fruits. The potato scab and the 
apple scab are good examples of fungous diseases. 

Control Measures for Diseases. — ^There are various means 
at our command for the control of many of the diseases that 
affect our cultivated plants. It is apparent, however, that 
different methods must be adopted for the different diseases 
on the plants just the same as different remedies must be 
used for the control of diseases in the human s> stem. 



120 PESTS OF CULTIVATED PLANTS 

Spraying, dusting, and controlling the conditions under 
which the plants are grown and removing the affected parts 
are some of the methods employed to save our economic 
plants from destruction from the various diseases that prey 
upon them. It is evident that certain diseases as well as 
certain insects cannot be controlled by spraying, and also 
that several sprays are needed to control the different kinds 
of diseases. 

The fungous diseases can usually be controlled or at least 
held in check by the application of fungicides to the plant. 
The fungicide which is a chemical compound of some kind 
is either placed in water and sprayed on the plant or dusted 
on by some method. 

The bacterial diseases cannot be controlled by the applica- 
tion of any fungicide and the only means of control is to cut 
away the affected part or destroy the entire plant. 

The following troubles are a few that cannot be controlled 
by spraying, but must be held in check by other means: 
peach yellows, little peach, potato scab, melon wilt, pear 
blight, apple-twig blight, and dry rot of the potato. 

Bacterial Diseases. — Bacterial diseases are caused by the 
action of small microscopic organisms commonly known as 
bacteria. These are very small, usually one-celled plants 
that live for the most part in the cell sap or in the juices 
found in the plant tissue. From the nature of their attack 
it is apparent that they are responsible for a disease that 
from its nature is extremely difficult to control. Since the 
bacteria are internal, either precautionary or very drastic 
means must be devised to hold them in check. 

Bacteria ordinarily are extremely simple in form, and are 
usually confined to three types, namely spheres, cylindrical 
rods of greater or less length, and spiral rods. In size they 
are very minute, being by far the smallest living organisms 
known, and demanding the highest power of the microscope 
for their study. 

Many bacteria have the power of motion, which is produced 
bj^ slender, motile hairs arising from their bodies. By moving 
these little hairs back and forth the bacteria produce loco- 
motion and change their position. These hairs are called 



PLANT DISEASES 



121 



flagella. Bacteria are divided into three easily recognizable 
divisions: (1) Coccus or spherical bacteria, (2) bacillus or 
rod-shaped bacteria, (3) spirillum or spiral bacteria. 

Multiplication of Bacteria. — ^The common method of repro- 
duction of bacteria is by simple division. Although this 
method is common to all bacteria, there are some forms 
which frequently reproduce themselves by the formation of 




Fig. 54. — Several forms of bacteria greatly enlarged. (After A. Fisher.) 



reproductive bodies called spores. The spores are formed in 
the body of the organism in the shape of small rounded 
masses, and later the body bursts open and the spores are 
set free. The spores are known as resting forms and their 
function seems to be to enable the bacteria to exist through 
unfavorable conditions. The spores have great vitality and 
they can be subjected to high temperature and to long periods 
of drought without suffering from such treatment. 



122 PESTS OF CULTIVATED PLANTS 

The most important factor connected with the life of 
bacteria is their exceptionally rapid power of multiplication. 
The division of the bacteria which results in two plants 
often takes place in less than half an hour, and in less than 
half that time each division is again ready to reproduce. 
The reproduction in this ratio results in an increase in 
nmnber which is almost inconceivable. 

Bacteria are also divided into two kinds, with regard to 
their needs for oxygen. Most bacteria demand oxygen to 
enable them to grow, but there are some species, and these 
are quite numerous, that can live without a supply of oxygen, 
and in fact can only grow and multiply when in an atmosphere 
devoid of oxygen. 

Bacteria bear the same relation to temperature as do 
other ordinary living organisms. If the temperature is high 
the multiplication of the bacteria is more rapid, and as the 
temperature approaches the freezing-point, the activity of 
the bacteria ceases. The temperature at which the maximum 
growth of bacteria occurs is quite variable and varies from 
70° F. to about 95° F., while other forms will grow well at 
still higher temperatures. 

Environment and Soil Sanitation. — ^The environment in 
which a plant is grown regulates to a large degree the preva- 
lence of certain diseases. The "damping off" of seedlings is 
commonly due to poor environment. While it is known there 
is a definite cause for the trouble in the form of a fungus, 
it is conceded that if the proper growing conditions are 
maintained, the plants will not be attacked by this fungus. 
It has been demonstrated conclusively that if good fresh 
air is given, the proper temperature is maintained, and the 
correct amount of water is given at the right time, the 
seedlings will not be attacked by the fungi that cause this 
trouble. An oversupply of water accompanied by excessive 
heat affords ideal conditions for the growth of fungus troubles 
which often attack the plant and cause serious injury. The 
damping off of seedlings, while due primarily to a parasitic 
growth at the crown of the plant, is brought about by unfa- 
vorable conditions of growth of the parent plant and can 
only be controlled by regulating the conditions under which 



PHYSIOLOGICAL TROUBLES 123 

the plant is growing. The control for this trouble usually 
means the cleaning out of all diseased plants, withholding 
the water supply, and providing for better ventilation. 

The cleaning up of the soil by steam sterilization or by the 
treating of it with formalin is also effective in destroying 
certain fungous diseases which are found in the soil. These 
fungi oftentimes remain alive for a number of years and 
attack the plants when they are planted. 

It is alw^ays advisable, therefore, to have the soil clean 
and free from fungi. The plants should be grown where they 
will have plenty of sunshine and have a good circulation of 
fresh air so that the damp air will be blown away and never 
allowed to collect about the seedlings. 

PHYSIOLOGICAL TROUBLES. 

Any serious disturbance in the life processes of the plant 
which cannot be attributed to an organic factor, such as 
insects, fungus or bacteria, is called a physiological trouble. 
The peach yellows and the little peach are tw^o common 
examples of injury that are included under physiological 
trouble. The most recent work on physiological troubles 
seems to indicate that the plants are growing under unfavor- 
able conditions, and that there is a lack of certain elements 
in the soil which produces these troubles. In fact physio- 
logical troubles are not well understood, although more 
information is being gained eveiy year and perhaps in the 
near future more suggestions can be offered. 

Control Measures of Physiological Troubles. — No definite 
remedial measures are at our disposal for the control of the 
so-called physiological troubles. By that is meant that it is 
of no avail to spray or to treat the plant with any solution 
for the control of this class of troubles. A physiological 
trouble, as the term implies, is some interference with the 
natural process of the growth of the plant, and is thought 
to be the result of insufficient iron or some other element 
in the soil. 

The only means of control, therefore, would be to supply the 
material that is lacking, so the plant will develop normally. 



124 PESTS OF CULTIVATED PLANTS 

INJURY BY PREDACEOUS ANIMALS. 

Predaceous animals include all rodents, such as mice, 
rabbits, woodchucks, and moles. The loss due to this class 
of pests is confined principally to the younger trees and to 
bushes, yet there are many herbaceous plants in the garden 
like the cabbage, lettuce, etc., which are often attacked and 
severely injured. The loss in the aggregate due to rodents 
is considerable, when all plants are included. The amount 
of injury would be far less than it is if the rubbish and the 
grasses which serve as places of concealment were destroyed . 
In the average home orchard and in the garden the danger 
of rodent injury is greater than in a commercial plantation, 
because the possible means of protection for the plants are 
more generally disregarded. 

Control Measures for Predaceous Animals. — ^The injury done 
to plants by predaceous animals is due to the eating of the 
plant tissue by certain destructive rodents, such as mice, 
rabbits, or woodchucks. The control for such injury must 
of necessity be one of prevention rather than one of destruc- 
tion. The control of the predaceous animals is accomplished 
by protecting the plant in such a way as to keep the animals 
away from the plants. 

There are various ways and means which are used for the 
protection of our plants. The banking or mounding of soil 
about the trunk of the trees is often used. The mounding 
is not so very effective in itself, but when used in conjunction 
with other mechanical devices aids materially in the protec- 
tion of trees. Mice in particular rarely ever injure trees, 
unless grass, manure or trash is found near their bases. For 
mounding to be effective the grass must first be cleared away 
from the base of the tree, and the soil thoroughly firmed 
about the base of the trunk. A covering of cinders well 
pressed into the soil should cap each mound. The mound 
should be from twelve to fifteen inches in diameter at the 
base and from five to six inches in height. The mound 
should be allowed to remain throughout the year, but it 
must be repaired from time to time to insure its efficiency. 

The most complete and the most ideal plant protector 



INJURY BY PREDACEOUS ANIMALS 



125 



is a wire screen. This protector is made of screen, the meshes 
of which vary in size from one-eighth to one-half inch, 





Fig. 55. — Tree protected by small 
mesh poultry netting. (After Ballou, 
Ohio Agriciiltural Bulletin No. 208.) 



Fig. 56. — A combination of 
wire cloth and building paper 
as a tree protector. (After 
Ballou, Ohio Agricultural Bul- 
letin No. 208.) 



but the usual size is one-fourth inch. The wire screen 
protector is more expensive than the earth mound, but 
nevertheless it is considerably more effective against all 



126 PESTS OF CULTIVATED PLANTS 

kinds of rodents which prey upon the stems of young trees. 
The screen protector is hght and open and presents the least 
obstruction to strong winds, yet at the same time admits 
the sun and the air. The wire screen neither affords any 
dark nor obscure places for the concealment of any kind of 
injurious insect pests. 

The wire screen protectors vary in size, depending primarily 
upon the size of the tree. A good size that seems to be 
adapted to many trees is twelve by twenty-four inches. 
This protector is really nothing more than a piece of gal- 
vanized wire cloth with one-fourth-inch meshes. It is then 
bent or rolled over a small, round piece of wood, shaping 
it into a cylinder about two and one-half or three inches in 
diameter. The cylinder is then placed about the stem of the 
tree where its own tension will hold it in place. A protector 
made from the ordinary one-inch mesh, galvanized chicken 
wire is quite effective against rabbits, but this size of wire 
will not protect the trees from mice. Spiral wire protectors 
are sometimes made from a galvanized iron wire. The 
spiral protectors are in the form of a spiral or a spring, and 
while they are effective against rabbits they are not to be 
recommended generally. Their chief drawback is the large 
spaces between the wires, which permit the rodents either to 
squeeze through entirely or to push their heads in far enough 
to reach the base of the tree. 

Probably one of the most effective plant protectors for all 
purposes is found in the wood veneer protector. This style 
is quite effective against all kinds of rodents. However, 
they are close and tight, and exclude almost all the light, and 
often various forms of insects harbor in the crevices and the 
rough portion of the bark and may become troublesome. 
The veneer protectors should be removed from the trees 
during the summer and replaced before winter. 

In addition to the wire protectors already mentioned, which 
are classed as more or less commercial articles, there are 
several home devices which may be used with varying degrees 
of success. Cornstalks, for instance, are very effective 
against rabbits and ground hogs, and at the same time have 
the advantage of being very cheap. There is practically no 



INJURY BY PREDACEOUS ANIMALS 



127 



cost to this material. The stalks should be selected as they 
come from the field and all of the leaves stripped off. Square 
the ends of the stalks by laying them on a board or a box and 
using a large knife. Cut the stalks into pieces about two feet 
in length. When the stalks are pre- 
pared five or six of them are bound 
firmly around the stem of the young 
tree. 

A combination of the cornstalk and 
the wire-cloth protector is popular in 
some sections. This combination 
protector is made by an eight- or a 
ten-inch wire-cloth cylinder about 
the base of the cornstalk protector. 
If the tree has previously been well 
mounded up with soil, this combina- 
tion protector completely baffles all 
kinds of rodents and makes the .trees 
quite secure from their attacks. 

Cylinders made from either the 
common heavy wrapping paper or the 
building paper make a very effective 
and a secure protection for the trees. 
The greatest drawback to this pro- 
tector is its fragility and its short 
length of life. Only the heaviest 
wrapping paper should be used, and a 
good grade of building paper is pre- 
ferred. These wrappers are placed 
on the trees — either in the form of a 
cylinder or wrapped spirally around 
the stem to the desired height. When 
the spiral method is adopted the 
paper is cut into narrow strips. Two 
points in favor of the spiral form are, that a crooked-bodied 
tree can be more closely and more neatly covered, and 
that it is more resistant to the strong winds. 

Cultural Control Measures.— The control of all pests affect- 
ing cultivated plants can be materially affected by cultural 
practices. Certain classes of pests, particularly insects, can 




Fig. 57. — A tree protec- 
tor made by tying corn- 
stalks around it. (After 
Ballou, Ohio Agricultural 
Bulletin No. 208.) 



128 PESTS OF CULTIVATED PLANTS 

be controlled easier than certain others, but relief can be 
had from many pests by following good cultural methods. 

Crop rotation is an important factor in controlling some 
of our plant troubles. Rotation is beneficial in combating 
those insects and diseases that remain in the soil over winter 
and which are not killed by the cold weather. Besides insects 
there are many diseases which are found in the soil and that 
will grow on one class of plants but will not attack other 
classes. These diseases therefore can be killed out by the 
growing of a different crop on that land. For this class of 
diseases it is never advisable to grow the same kind of a crop 
on a piece of land any two years in succession. By rotating 
the crops we not only control many insects and diseases but 
we improve the general condition of the soil as well. 

Fall plowing is valuable in destroying some insects. Many 
insects pass part of their life history in the ground. These 
insects make small burrows or homes in which they spend 
the winter. If they are allowed to remain undisturbed they 
will live through the cold weather, but if the soil is plowed 
up in the fall and the insects exposed to the cold, a great 
many of them are killed. This same treatment is valuable in 
destroying the eggs of many other insects that lay them in 
the ground. When the eggs are exposed to the winter 
weather they are also killed. 

REVIEW QUESTIONS. 

1. Describe the four classes of pests that attack plants. 

2. Is the damage done to plants by these pests large or small? 

3. Into what three classes are the insects divided? 

4. What is complete and incomplete metamorphosis? 

5. Give the four stages in complete metamorphosis. 

6. Give the three stages in incomplete metamorphosis. 

7. How does an insect with incomplete metamorphosis grow? 

8. Name and describe the three divisions into which plant diseases are 
divided. 

9. Discuss some of the symptoms of a diseased plant. 

10. Discuss bacterial and fungous diseases. 

11. Name and describe the three classes of bacteria. 

12. How do bacteria multiply? 

13. Discuss the injury to plants due to predaceous animals. 

14. Discuss physiological troubles of plants. 

15. How can physiological troubles be controlled? 

16. Discuss, the means of control for insects and diseases. 

17. Describe several devices for the control of predaceous animals. 

18. What is meant by cultural control measures for plant pests? 



CHAPTER VIII. 
SPRAY MACHINERY AND SPRAY MATERIALS. 

SPRAY MACfflNERY. 

The most improved spray machinery is necessary for 
efficient work. Without effective spraying there is seldom 
any good that ever residts from the practice. There is no 
other operation in horticultural practices that calls for so 
thorough work as does the application of spray materials to 
all plants. It has been found that the most effective work 
can be done with those machines which permit of high pres- 
sure. This does not mean that the small hand sprayers are 
not valuable, but where the orchard or garden is large enough 
to warrant the purchase of a large machine better spraying 
can be accomplished. 

Kinds of Sprayers. — ^There are six distinct types of sprayers 
on the market. Each type is made primarily for certain 
kinds of spraying. The capacity of each one varies, and the 
efficiency of the several types depends to a large extent upon 
the size of the sprayer. The six types are : (1) the hand atom- 
izer, (2) the bucket sprayer, (3) the automatic compressed- 
air sprayer, (4) the barrel sprayer, (5) the twin-cylinder hand 
sprayer, (6) the power sprayer, of which there are three sizes, 
namely, the pony outfit, the medium-sized sprayer, and the 
large sprayer. 

Hand Atomizer. — ^The hand atomizer is the most simple 
kind of a sprayer. It consists of a small can or glass jar 
attached to a tube into which fits a piston. The piston is 
attached to a handle and by working it back and forth the 
spray material is forced out on the plant. This sprayer is too 
small to be of much value only on small plants. 

Bucket Sprayer. — ^The bucket sprayer is the next larger size 
and does better work. This sprayer consists of a small 
9 



130 SPRAY MACHINERY AND SPRAY MATERIALS 

pump which usually has two small brass ball valves. The 
pump cylinder and air chamber is usually made of brass. 
This pump is capable of developing considerable pressure 
and is valuable for spraying many kinds of plants. The 
pump is separate and in order to spray it must be set into a 
bucket containing the spray material. This is the chief 
drawback to this sprayer, since it is awkward to carry around 
in an open bucket filled with the spray mixture. A small 
piece of hose and a spray nozzle is attached to this pump. 




Fig. 58. — A good hand sprayer for small truck and bush fruits. 
(The Deming Company.) 

Automatic Sprayer.^ — The automatic sprayer is a more 
convenient form than the bucket sprayer. This sprayer can 
be filled and then pumped up with air, and the entire atten- 
tion of the operator can be devoted to spraying. The auto- 
matic sprayer is very convenient and easy to carry. It is 
particularly good for truck crops and small bush fruits. 

The tank of this sprayer should be made of brass. This 
is highly desirable, because if it is made of galvanized iron 
it corrodes very rapidly when used for Bordeaux mixture. 
The corroding action on the metal makes the life of the 



SPRAY MACHINERY 



131 



sprayer very short. Where brass is used and the tank thor- 
oughly made, these sprayers are very durable. This is an 
ideal sprayer where a small amount of spraying is to be done. 
Barrel Sprayer. — The barrel pump sprayer is of medium 
capacity, and well suited for the small orchard. It has the 
advantage of being comparatively cheap and of doing very 
satisfactory work. 




Fig. 59. — A barrel sprayer, mounted on wheels. (Barnes Manufacturing 
Company.) 

There are two ways of mounting the pump in the barrel, 
namely on the side of the barrel and on the end of the barrel. 
The side mounting of the pump seems to have a slight 
advantage over the end mounting in that the sprayer sets 
low down and is not in the way of low branches. There is 
also no danger of tipping the barrel over when mounted on 
the side. 



132 SPRAY MACHINERY AND SPRAY MATERIALS 

The barrel spraj^er usually holds about fifty gallons. It 
requires two men to operate it. The barrel is either mounted 
on a sled or on wheels. 

Twin-cylinder Hand Sprayer.— The twin-cylinder hand 
sprayer is decidedly the most satisfactory hand pump. By 
the use of the two cylinders, a balance of power is obtained, 
which ensures an even flow to the air chamber, which is not 
obtainable with a single-cylinder pump. 




Fig. 60. — Two-cylinder hand sprayer, mounted on a sled. This is an excel- 
lent type for a small sprayer. (The Goulds Manufacturing Company.) 

The working parts of this pump are usually made of brass. 
The construction is strong, compact and convenient. 

The pump is operated by a handle which is removable, and 
can be used in either a vertical or a horizontal position. 

The double-cylinder pump is a very efficient sprayer. It is 
used for orchards of considerable size, and a much greater 
pressure can usually be maintained with this sprayer than 
with any other hand pump. It is remarkably easy to operate. 
This pump is usually mounted on a wagon or a sled. The 
vessel holding the spray material may be either a tank, or 
a barrel, depending upon the size of the orchard and the 
inclination of the owner. 



SPRAY MACHINERY 



133 



Power Sprayers.— The power sprayers vary in size. They 
range from a two-cyhnder pump up to three-cyUnder pumps 
of considerable capacity. The size of the engine varies from 
IJ horse power to 4 horse power. The power sprayers are 
more comphcated and require more skill to operate than do 
any of the hand pumps. In order to successfully operate a 
power sprayer one must know something about gasoline 
engines and understand the principles of pumps. 




Fig. 6] 



-A small power sprayer, suitable for the home or the small com- 
mercial orchard. 



The power sprayers are the most efficient sprayers on 
the market because they will permit greater pressure and a 
finer distribution of the spray material. The pressure usually 
carried in a power outfit varies from 150 to 250 pounds, and 
the tanks range in size from 125 to 200 gallons. 

The power sprayer is usually equipped with a tower which 
permits a man to reach all parts of an ordinary-sized tree. 
These sprayers are used in the commercial orchard or on the 
large farm orchard. It requires three men to successfully 
operate any of the power sprayers. 

Spray Machine Parts.— In order to thoroughly understand 
a spray machine, one must understand some of the parts 



134 SPRAY MACHINERY AND SPRAY MATERIALS 

of which it is made. Some of the most important parts are 
the cyhnders, valves, valve seats, phmgers, agitators, supply 
tanks and nozzles. 

Cylinders. — ^The cylinders should always be made of brass. 
Sometimes brass tubing of heav}^ weight is threaded to fit 
the cylinder heads. Some firms use brass tubing clamped 
between the cylinder heads, while still others use a solid 
cast-iron chamber with a brass liner. A cast-iron cylinder, 
enamelled with porcelain has been used some, but the greatest 
difficulty with this cylinder is the unevenness of the enamel, 
and because of this defect it is not generally satisfactory. 

Valves. — ^There are four kinds of valves found in the spray 
machine, namely, the ball, poppit, swing check, and steam 
check. These valves are used in various places in the 
machine and are used to control the flow of the liquid and to 
regulate the pressure of the air. Valves are made of rubber, 
steel or bronze and the bronze valve is the most durable for 
all kinds of work. 

There are many variations in the four kinds of valves, due 
to minor changes in the construction of some part, but these 
are too numerous to discuss in detail. 

Vahe Seat. — ^The valve seat is the place into which the 
valve fits. The seats are built to receive the particular type 
of valve which is used. Many of the valve seats are made of 
iron, with a secondary seat of leather or rubber to prevent 
back flow. Occasionally hard-rubber seats are used, but the 
majority of pumps are equipped with removable brass valve 
seats, which are the most durable and the most desirable. 

Plunger. — ^The plunger or piston is that part which fits 
into the cylinder and gives compression. Plungers are fitted 
with various types of packing. Some of the most common 
materials used for this purpose are cloth reinforced with 
rubber, hemp, steam packing, and paraffin canvas. The most 
desirable packing is one that will last for a considerable period 
and does not require constant attention to keep it in shape. 

Agitators, — An agitator is a device for stirring the material 
in the tank during spraying. In a small tank or a barrel the 
swinging paddles are fairly satisfactory, but in the power 
sprayers the sliding agitator or propeller is preferable. The 



SPRAY MACHINERY 135 

sliding agitator simply moves back and forth along the bottom 
of the tank, while the propeller whirls around in the liquid, 
keeping it churned up all the time. The propeller agitators 
are much more efficient than any other type because of their 
higher speed, durability, simplicity, and small size. 

Supply Tanks. — Supply tanks vary in shape and in size. 
The most popular tank, however, is the round-bottom type. 
This tank is easily kept tight by screwing up a few nuts on 
the clamp rods. The principal trouble with all tanks is the 
difficulty of keeping them water-tight, and when selecting one 
see that there is an easy way of tightening it up so that it can 
always be kept tight. A wooden tank is preferable to any 
metal tank. 




Fig. 62. — Different types of spray nozzles. 1, three-cluster Vermorel; 
2, angle Cyclone; 3, Bordeaux; 4, Whirlpool; 5, Vapo. 

Nozzles. — The nozzles used for spraying vary greatly, and 
several distinct kinds are in use. The nozzle is often the 
source of considerable trouble, and great care should be used 
in selecting a good type. 

Some of the common t^^es of nozzles are the Bordeaux, 
C^^clone, Whirlpool, Vermorel, of which there is a one-, two-, 
three-, and a four-cluster Vermorel, the Vapo and several 
others. The different kinds are used for special purposes and 
no one general-purpose nozzle is very satisfactory. The Vapo 
nozzle is perhaps one of the most satisfactory types and it has 
largely taken the place of the Vermorel. A small, single Vapo 
nozzle has the capacity of a three-cluster Vermorel. 



136 SPRAY MACHINERY AND SPRAY MATERIALS 




The chief function of a nozzle is to throw a very fine spray 
and to distribute it uniformly in all directions. A nozzle 
clogs up easily and needs cleaning frequently for good work. 
Spray Rod. — ^The spray rod is used 
to facilitate spraying and to aid in dis- 
tributing the spray mixture where it is 
wanted. It affords an easy means of 
extending the spray. The spray rod is 
often spoken of as an extension rod. It 
is made of bamboo and varies in length 
from 6 to 12 feet. Each rod is lined 
either with aluminum, brass or iron, but 
a seamless, aluminum tubing, which is 
screw threaded into brass connections at 
either end is preferable. These connec- 
tions sleeve over the end of the rod, 
which make the joints very strong. The 
use of aluminum tubing makes the rod 
very light and easy to handle. The 
bamboo extension rods are also fitted 
with rubber drip guards which can be 
moved up and down on the rod, and are 
used to catch all of the moisture that 
settles on the rod while spraying. 

Spray Gun. — ^The spray gun, which 
is the most recent development in this 
line of equipment, promises to replace 
entirely the spray rod. This gun not 
only saves labor and money, but is effi- 
cient and easy to handle. It can be 
quickly adjusted to throw either a fine or a coarse spray a 
short or a long distance. 



Fig. 63. — Spray gun, 
the latest and best tool 
for the spraying of 
plants. This is fast 
replacing the common 
spray rod. 



SPRAY MATERIALS. 

The necessity of spraying is no longer doubted. It has 
been demonstrated and proved beyond further doubt that 
unless spraying is done it is almost an impossibility to produce 
first-class horticultural products. The only question that 
remains is to determine what is the proper material with 
which to spray the plants. 



SPRAY MATERIALS 137 

Spray materials are divided into two classes, namely, insect- 
icides, which are chemicals used for the killing of insects, and 
fungicides, which are chemicals used to prevent or destroy 
plant diseases. The insecticides are divided into stomach 
poisons and contact poisons, based upon the way in which 
they kill the insect. 

Insecticides and fungicides are used in two ways, either in 
a dry state as a fine powder or dissolved in water and dis- 
tributed as a fine spray. If the material is dusted on the 
plants, it is distributed by the use of a dust gun which forces 
the powder out by the aid of a fan. If a spray is used, various 
kinds of spraying machines are employed. 

Sprays for the Plants and How to Prepare Them.— Poisons 
for Biting /Ti^ecfo.— There are a number of insecticides which 
are used for biting insects. These poisons are taken into 
the stomach of the insects and kill them through their action 
on the digestive tract. There are two classes of stomach 
poisons, namely, organic poisons, which are usually vegetable 
compounds, and inorganic compounds, which are of inorganic 
materials. The vegetable poisons are poisonous to the 
insects but not to the human system and therefore are safer 
to use on some plants, as, for instance, cabbage, lettuce, 
or currants. The poisonous property of these insecticides 
is usually volatile, that is, when the material is exposed to 
the air for a few days it loses its poisonous nature. Because 
of this fact it must be strictly fresh when it is used, and it 
must be kept air-tight, when it is stored, otherwise it is 
worthless. The two most knportant insecticides which 
belong to this class are the white hellebore and the pyrethrum. 

The inorganic insecticides are poisonous to insects as 
well as to animals, and greater care must be used in their 
application to the plants. There are many poisons in this 
class, but the base of all of them is usually some form of 
arsenic. A few of the most common ones are arsenate of 
lead, Paris green, and London purple. 

These poisons are applied in both the dust form and the 
spray form. The method which is selected depends upon 
the plant and the insect which is being treated. 



138 SPRAY MACHINERY AND SPRAY MATERIALS 

FORMULAS FOR THE STOMACH POISONS. 
Arsenate of Lead. 

Paste Form. 

Arsenate of lead . 2to5 pounds 

Water 50 gallons 

Powder Form. 

Arsenate of lead 1§ to 3 pounds 

Water 50 gallons 

This poison is in many respects the most satisfactory of 
any of the arsenical sprays. It is very adhesive and if 
properly made will not burn the foliage to any extent. More 
pounds of the paste form must be used to a given quantity 
of water than the powder form because of the amount of 
moisture present in the paste. 

PARIS GREEN. 

Paris green ^ to 1 pound 

Stone lime 2 to 3 pounds 

Water 50 gallons 

The chief fault with the Paris green is its tendency to burn 
the foliage. If it is not added to some fungicide, stone lime 
should be added to the water in order to reduce the amount of 
burning of the foliage. If Paris green is used in combination 
with Bordeaux mixture the addition of lime is not necessary. 
This insecticide is a very active poison. 



WHITE HELLEBORE. 

When Used as a Spray. 

White hellebore . 1 ounce 

Water 3 gallons 

When Used as a Powder. 

White hellebore 1 ounce 

Air-slaked lime, flour or sifted road dust .... 5 ounces 

PYRETHRUM. 

When Used as a Spray. 

Pyrethrum 1 ounce 

Water 2 gallons 

When Used as a Powder. 

Pyrethrum . 1 ounce 

Air-slaked lime, flour or sifted road dust .... 5 ounces 



SPRAY MATERIALS 139 

The white hellebore and the pyrethrum lose their poisonous 
properties quickly when exposed to the air. These insecti- 
cides are poisonous to insects but not to higher animals. 
They are valuable to use on ripening fruit or just before the 
harvesting of such crops as the lettuce or the cabbage. These 
poisons must be strictly fresh or they are worthless. 

Poisons for Sticking Insects. — Sucking insects cannot be 
controlled by the same poisons as biting insects, because 
these insects do not eat the plant tissue. The mouth parts 
of the sucking insects are so constructed that the insect can 
insert them into the plant tissue and suck out the plant juices, 
and therefore any stomach poison applied to the plant will 
in no way affect the sucking insects. In order then to con- 
trol this class of insect pests, we must spray the plant and 
cover the insects with some material that will destroy them 
by coming in contact with their bodies. A few common 
contact insecticides are lime sulphur, nicotine sprays, various 
mixtures of soap and kerosene and oil sprays. 

FORMULAS FOR CONTACT POISONS. 

Lime-sulphur Wash. 

Stone lime 12 to 15 pounds 

Flowers of sulphur 15 pounds 

Water 50 gallons 

This formula is for the home-made wash. Slake the lime 
in a small quantity of water. Gradually stir the sulphur 
into this mixture. Dilute the mixture to 12 gallons and boil 
for one hour or longer. Remove from the fire and add enough 
water to make 50 gallons. Strain the wash through a fine- 
mesh strainer. This spray must be used when the plants are 
dormant, and it is either applied in the spring before the buds 
open or in the fall after the leaves drop. The chief disad- 
vantage of this home-made wash is the great quantity of 
sediment which is hard to remove satisfactorily so that it 
will not clog up the pump and nozzles. 

COMMERCIAL LIME-SULPHUR SOLUTION. 

The commercial lime-sulphur is much easier to use because 
it is free from sediment and requires no preparation other 



140 SPRAY MACHINERY AND SPRAY MATERIALS 

than to dilute it with water. The commercial solutions are 
thoroughly reliable. They are fairly well standardized now 
and the standard liquid test is about 33 degrees on the 
Baume hydrometer, which is the density of the solution. 
These solutions when used as insecticides must be diluted 
and sprayed on the plants when they are in a dormant state. 
When the solution tests 33 degrees Baume, one gallon of 
the mixture should be diluted with 7 or 8 gallons of water. 
Solutions less dense should be diluted as follows : 

TABLE OF DILUTIONS FOR THE DORMANT SPRAY. 

Number of gallons of 

water to 1 gallon 

Reading of of the lime-sulphur 

hydrometer, solution for dormant 

degree Baume. spray. 

33 7 

32 6^ 

31 6 

30 5| 

29 5i 

28 5 

27 4f 

26 4| 

25 4i 

24 4 

23 4 

22 3f 

21 3^ 

20 3 

SOAP SOLUTIONS. 

Satisfactory insecticides for soft-bodied insects can be 
made from soap. Fish-oil soap is probably the best, although 
common laundry soap is very good. The solution is made by 
cutting up one pound of soap into small pieces and dissolving 
it by boiling in 4 or 5 gallons of water.. This is a good spray 
for plant lice. 

NICOTINE PRODUCTS. 

The nicotine products are perhaps the most satisfactory 
contact insecticides we have for the plant lice. The active 
principle in these solutions is nicotine sulphate. Some com- 
mercial products, namely, the Black Leaf 40 and the Nice- 



SPRAY MATERIALS 141 

fume, are very good. These materials are made from tobacco 
and are in a very concentrated form. They are usually pre- 
pared by diluting the stock solution with 800 to 1000 parts 
of water. 

Tobacco decoction is also used to some extent as an 
insecticide. This spray is made by boiling 1 pound of tobacco 
stems in about a gallon of water for one hour. Strain out the 
refuse material and add enough water to make two gallons. 
The tobacco products are excellent for controlling the plant 
lice, and they do no injury to the most tender plants. 

KEROSENE EMULSION. 

Laundry soap | pound 

Kerosene 2 gallons 

Water 1 gallon 

Kerosene emulsion is made by dissolving the soap by 
boiling it in the full amount of water. Remove the mixture 
from the fire and add the kerosene. Stir the mixture violently 
for about fifteen minutes until it becomes a creamy mass that 
will not separate. This is the stock solution. For use dilute 
1 part of the emulsion with 8 to 10 parts of water for hard- 
bodied insects, and 1 part with 12 to 20 parts of water for 
soft-bodied insects. 

CARBOLIC ACID EMULSION. 

Hard soap 1 pound 

Crude carbolic acid 1 pint 

Hot water 1 gallon 

Dissolve the soap in the hot water and add the carbolic 
acid. Churn the mixture until it becomes creamy and does 
not separate. This is the stock solution. For use dilute 
1 part of the emulsion to 30 parts of water. This spray is 
used against the different kinds of maggots, the cabbage 
worms, and other soft-bodied insects. 

Sprays for Plant Diseases. — ^The spray mixtures for the 
control of plant diseases differ from those used to kill insects. 
The confusion which results over this question is oftentimes 
detrimental to the growers. 



142 SPRAY MACHINERY AND SPRAY MATERIALS 



BORDEAUX MIXTURE. 

Copper sulphate 4 pounds 

Stone lime 4 pounds 

Water 50 gallons 

This mixture is known as the standard Bordeaux. Other 
strengths are made by using a less amount of the copper 
sulphate and the stone lime. To make Bordeaux mixture 
dissolve the copper sulphate in several gallons of water 
and then add enough water to make 25 gallons. Slake the 
stone lime in about five gallons of water, and add enough 
water to it to make the 25 gallons. When these solutions 
are made pour both of them together into a barrel, and the 
spray material is finished. 

Bordeaux mixture should not be made in metal vessels 
because the copper acts upon the metal and soon destroys it. 
Wooden vessels are best suited for making this material. 
Bordeaux mixture should always be made fresh and sprayed 
on the plant as soon as it is made. It loses much of its value 
as a fungicide if it is allowed to stand very long before it is 
used. 

Bordeaux mixture is one of the best fungicides we have 
and its place in horticulture is firmly established. , 

SELF-BOILED LIME-SULPHUR MIXTURE. 

Stone lime 10 pounds 

Flowers of sulphur 10 pounds 

Water 50 gallons 

Place the lime in a barrel and pour on enough water to 
start the slaking of the lime. Then add the sulphur after 
sieving it to remove any lumps and stir the mixture thor- 
oughly, finally, adding sufficient water to make a paste. 
Constant stirring is necessary to prevent caking. After the 
boiling produced by the slaking of the lime is over, the mix- 
ture should be diluted to the 50 gallons and it is then ready 
to use. 

This fungicide is very satisfactory for use on the peach, the 
American and Japanese plums, and upon some varieties of 
cherries. 



SPRAY MATERIALS 143 



COMMERCIAL LIME-SULPHUR SOLUTION. 

The commercial lime-sulphur solution is a good fungicide 
when diluted to the proper strength. In fact it is universally 
used on many of our fruits and particularly the apple. This 
fungicide, however, is not very satisfactory in controlling 
the rots, but it is good for the apple scab, the flyspeck fungus 
and some other diseases. 

The dilution of this fungicide is based upon the density 
of the solution, the same as it is for the insecticide, except 
that the spray must be much weaker as a fungicide than as 
an insecticide. The table gives the dilution based upon the 
degrees Baume of the commercial product. 

TABLE OF DILUTIONS FOR SUMMER SPRAY. 

Number of gallons of 

water to 1 gallon 

Reading of of the lime-sulphur 

hydrometer, solution for summer. 

degrees I3aum6. spray of apples. 

33 40 

32 37 

31 36 

30 34 

29 ....'... 33 

28 31 

27 29 

26 28 

25 26 

24 24 

23 23 

22 21 

21 20 

20 19 

Combination Insecticides and Fungicides. — ^There are insects 
and diseases which attack certain crops about the same time. 
Whenever such a condition is found, a combination of both 
an insecticide and a fungicide can be sprayed on the plants 
as one spray. By this practice the work of spraying is 
greatly decreased. 

The combinations vary, depending upon the plant and the 
injury which is being done. A few of the combinations which 
can be made are as follows : 



144 SPRAY MACHINERY AND SPRAY MATERIALS 

COMBINATION OF SUMMER SPRAYS. 
No. 1. 

Commercial lime-sulphur diluted 1 gallon to 40 gallons of water 

Arsenate of lead 2 or 3 pounds to 50 gallons 

Nicotine sulphate .... 1 part to 800 parts of the spray 

This combination can be made and applied at the same 
time, if the conditions warrant it. The hme-sulphur is used 
to control such diseases as the scab of the* apple, the arsenate 
of lead controls the codling moth or other eating insects, 
and the nicotine controls the plant lice if there are any 
present. It is a common practice to use the lime sulphur 
and arsenate of lead combination in almost all of the spraying, 
but the nicotine sulphate should not be used unless there are 
insects present that require its use. 

No. 2. 

Bordeaux mixture .... 4-4-50 formula 

Arsenate of lead 2 pounds to 50 gallons 

Nicotine sulphate .... 1 part to 800 parts of the spray 

This combination is similar to the first one, except that the 
Bordeaux mixture is substituted for the lime-sulphur solu- 
tion. The Bordeaux mixture is preferable to the lime-sulphur 
solution for certain diseases. The nicotine should not be 
added unless there are insects present that require it. 

No. 3. 

Self-boiled lime-sulphur mix- 
ture 10-10-50 formula 

Arsenate of lead .... 3 pounds to 50 gallons of the spray 

This combination is very satisfactory for spraying some of 
the American and Japanese varieties of plums. 

Fumigation. — ^In addition to the common spray naixture 
we recognize fumigation as a means of controlling diseases 
and insects. Whenever fumigation is employed for the con- 
trol of disease it is used in a special way. Formaldehyde 
gas is the common fumigant used. The Maine formula for 
formalin is : 

Formalin 3 pounds 

Potassium permanganate 23 ounces 



SPRAY MATERIALS 145 

This quantity is sufficient for the fumigation of 1000 cubic 
feet of space. The fumigation is used to destroy diseases on 
certain crops when they are placed in storage. The potato 
and onion are two crops often treated in this way. When 
fumigation is practised the crops are placed in crates and 
piled up in rows in a tight room. The gas is generated by 
pouring the formalin in a flat-bottomed dish and adding the 
potassium permanganate the last thing before leaving the 
room. The room should be closed tightly and allowed to 
remain closed from twenty-four to forty-eight hours. 
• Seed Treatment. — ^The diseases of some of our crops are 
found on the seed. In such crops, the treating of the seed 
before planting it is very beneficial and greatly increases 
the yield. The two common materials used for seed treat- 
ment are formalin and corrosive sublimate. 

The formalin is more generally used and is more adapted to 
a larger number of seed. The black leg of the cabbage and 
the smut of the onion are two common diseases which can be 
partially controlled by treating the seed with this solution. 

The scab of the potato is greatly reduced by soaking the 
potato seed in a formalin solution made by placing 1 pint 
of formalin in 30 gallons of water. The potato should remain 
in this solution for about two hours. 

Corrosive sublimate is also used for the treatment of potato 
seed. The corrosive sublimate should be used at the rate of 
2 ounces to 16 gallons of water and the potatoes allowed to 
soak one and one-half hours. 

The most recent work on seed treatment is a modification 
of the cold method treatment. Recently the Iowa station has 
modified this method by dipping the potatoes for two min- 
utes in a hot formaldehyde solution and allowing them to 
dry. They report the efficiency of this method has been 
demonstrated in the laboratory and in the field. This is a 
decided improvement over the old method, because a hot 
solution is more active than a cold one and it has the advan- 
tage of greater penetration and the ability to kill more 
rapidly. It is more practical when a large quantity of seed 
is treated, as it consumes A^ery little time as compared with 
the cold method. 
10 



146 SPRAY MACHINERY AND SPRAY MATERIALS 

The strength recommended is 2 pints of 40 per cent, 
fomaldehyde to 30 gallons of water, heated to a temperature 
of 118° to 122° F. and dipped for two minutes. Remove the 
potatoes, pile 6 to 8 inches deep and cover them with wet 
sacks for an hour, then let them dry. 

REVIEW QUESTIONS. 

1. Name six different kinds of spray machines. 

2. Why are the small hand sprayers not as effective as the power 
machines? 

3. How does the bucket sprayer differ from the automatic sprayer? 

4. What advantage has the automatic sprayer over the bucket sprayer? 

5. How does the barrel sprayer differ from the twin-cylinder hand 
sprayer? 

6. What three kinds of power sprayers are made and upon what is the 
difference based? 

7. Name the four kinds of valves found in a spray machine? 

8. What material is best suited for making the valve seat? 

9. Describe the most effective agitator. 

10. What material is best suited for making a spray tank? Why? 

11. Name and describe several kinds of spray nozzles? 

12. Why are the nozzles so very important in spraying? 

13. What is the spray rod, and what is its function? 

14. Name two poisons for biting insects. 

15. What is meant by a contact and a stomach insecticide? 

16. Why should stone lime be added to Paris green when spraying? 

17. When should white hellebore and pyrethrum be used in spraying? 

18. Give the formula and tell how lime-sulphur wash is made? 

19. On what kind of insects is kerosene emulsion used? 

20. How does kerosene emulsion differ from carbolic acid emulsion? 

21. Give the formula for Bordeaux mixture and tell how it is made. 

22. What is the difference between commercial lime sulphur and self- 
boiled lime sulphur? 

23. What combinations of insecticides and fungicides are possible, and 
why are they made? 

24. What is meant by fumigation and what is controlled by it? 

25. Tell how seed potatoes are treated and what is gained by this treat- 
ment. 



CHAPTER IX. 

THE PRUNING OF PLANTS. 

The pruning of plants is an important as well as an 
interesting operation. It may be defined a,s the process of 
cutting off excess or undesirable wood. Small and large 
branches, roots, or twigs are removed so that the remaining 
parts are benefited. Pruning requires knowledge, experience 
and judgment, and when properly performed, produces a 
tree that is symmetrical in shape. Plants properly pruned 
will bear excellent fruit, because the plant food is used in 
fewer branches and therefore the plant can grow better fruit. 
Plants of different kinds must be pruned differently. 
Likewise young plants must be pruned in a different manner 
than old and mature plants. Young trees one year old are 
pruned differently than five-year-old or twenty-year-old 
trees. Vines are pruned unlike the bush fruits, and the 
brambles, such as blackberries and the raspberries, are pruned 
differently than the peach or the pear tree. So then after 
analyzing pruning in a brief way we are led to assume that 
all plants must be pruned in a manner determined by the 
plant, and also that the methods must be varied as the plant 
grows older. The pruning of a plant might be roughly divided 
into three groups: (1) pruning to save the life of a plant, (2) 
pruning for profit, and (3) pruning for ornament. 

Principles of Pruning.— There are certain principles in 
the pruning of any plant that are identical, because prun- 
ing is simply an operation on the plant. It consists of 
removing a certain amount or a part of the plant body. The 
nature of animal life is to heal any cut or wound on its body, 
and it is also the nature of a plant to heal any wound made 
on it. However, a wound made by removing a limb on a 
plant is different from the cutting off of a piece of the bark 
on the trunk, which might be similar to an animal wound. 
Consequently a few principles in removing a branch must be 



148 PRUNING OF PLANTS 

observed. All wounds on a plant are healed by the cell sap 
carrying food to the wounded part. If this wounded part is 
in the line of the sap movement the wound is readily healed, 
but if the wound is not in line with this channel in which the 
sap flows it will not be healed. Since the only way that the 
sap is kept flowing in this channel is by the presence of leaves 
on the trees, it is at once apparent that if a limb is cut off, 
the leaves are removed and consequently the sap does not 
pass out into any part of the stub that remains. When a 
stub is allowed to remain no healing can take place and in 
a short time disease will enter the tree and finally cause its 
death. 

The pruning of a plant disturbs the balance between the 
top and the roots. It is a well known fact that the top and 
the roots of a plant maintain an equilibrium and when a 
part of the branches is cut off it breaks this balance. The 
natural tendency then, is to have the plant develop enough 
new branches to bring about this balance between the roots 
and top. When pruning, then, it is necessary to take into 
consideration this principle, and not prune too severely, so 
that the balance of the tree is not so radically disturbed. 
Constant and uniform pruning every year avoids any bad 
effects from this source, but spasmodic and severe pruning 
greatly interrupts the equilibrium of a plant. 

Time to Prune. — The time for pruning varies over a con- 
siderable period and with different plants, and we recog- 
nize winter and summer pruning. With most horticulturists 
pruning is done during the late winter and early spring 
months. As a rule, pruning late in the spring, just before 
growth begins, is the ideal time for most plants. Late 
pruning of this kind serves to remove all winter-killed 
branches with no chance of more to occur. It also has the 
advantage of starting the healing process at once and the 
wound is exposed for a much shorter time. 

Summer pruning may be practiced to regulate the form of 
a tree or induce growth in accordance with some specific 
purpose. It also has a tendency to produce fruit buds by 
checking exuberant growth and by encouraging short lateral 
growths or short spur-like branches in the center of the tree. 



PRUNING TOOLS 149 

Protection of Wounds. — All wounded surfaces should be 
covered with some protective material in order to prevent 
diseases from gaining an entrance. No artificial material 
will aid in healing of any wound, but it prevents water and 
other foreign material from entering. 

Small wounds not to exceed one-half to three-quarters of 
an inch will usually heal over in one year and no covering is 
necessary. Larger wounds, however, should be protected. 
White lead paint, which is of the consistency of thick cream, 
is perhaps the best material to use for wound dressing. 
It is easily secured, it adheres well, it does not crack or 
chip off, it is easily applied and does not interfere with the 
healing process. Occasionally tar products and grafting 
waxes are also used. 



Fig, 64. — Four good types of pruning saws. 

Pruning Tools. — Special pruning tools are necessary if 
good pruning is to be done. In selecting any tool, see 



150 



PRUNING OF PLANTS 



that it is made of the best material and capable of keeping 
a good cutting edge. Every cut must be made clean and 
smooth, which can only be done by the best pruning tools. 
The pruning saw, the pruning knife, and the pruning 
shears are all necessary for the different kinds of pruning. 
In selecting a pruning saw, get one that has the saw teeth 
only on one edge. The two-edge pruning saw is of no value 
and should be banished from the country. A small, narrow 
saw resembling a compass saw, although somewhat longer and 
slightly thicker, is perhaps the best type. These saws can be 




Fig. 65. — Several types of pruDing tools. 



purchased at reliable up-to-date stores. Several types of 
good pruning shears are found on the market, and the ones 
shown in the illustration are excellent t^^es to use. The 
pruning knife, however, is indispensable for cutting smaller 
limbs. This is perhaps the best, too, since a cleaner cut can 
be made with it than any other pruning tool. 

Cause for Pruning. — Under natural conditions many plants 
grow very thickly and produce so many branches that they 
very often crowd each other. The older the plant gets the 
more the limbs crowd, until the plant reaches a point that 
the branches become so numerous that much light and air 



REMOVING LARGE BRANCHES 151 

are shut out. In addition to this trouble the plant has so 
many surplus branches that the root system is not sufficient 
to continue the growth of so much wood, and at the same 
time produce fruit. When pruning is practised, these surplus 
branches are removed which allow the food material to go 
into the production of fruit and flowers instead of wood. 

The pruning of a tree or bush also aids in forming a uniform 
and S3^mmetrical plant. All of the irregular branches are 
removed and the others shortened, so that the plant will be 
uniform. 

The thinning out of the branches aids in controlling insects 
and diseases. Spraying is made much easier and larger crops 
are produced. 

The systematic pruning of plants, especially when grown 
under artificial conditions, aids in withstanding wdnd storms, 
and trees are not blown over as easily as when large, long 
branches are allow^ed to remain. 

Effects of Pruning. — ^The regular methods employed in the 
pruning of a tree or shrub has a tendency to increase growth. 
Weak plants can oftentimes be made to grow more rapidly 
by severely pruning the top during the resting period. When 
such plants are severely pruned all the strength of the roots 
is used to grow a single upright, vigorous stalk. This acceler- 
ation of growth is also seen in the rejuvenation of an old tree. 
This is particularly true of the peach. By cutting off prac- 
tically all of the old top of the tree, you cause the roots to 
send out many vigorous shoots which in a short time makes 
another head of all new wood. Occasionally other old trees 
are treated in this manner, as the apple, elm and sometimes 
the soft maple. 

Pruning of certain plants also has a beneficial effect on the 
production of fruit. The peach serves as a good example, 
as in this case the plant bears its fruit upon the growth of the 
previous year and the grower can reduce the crop in propor- 
tion to the capacity of the tree. Pruning aids in combating 
certain diseases, as, for example, the cankers and the blights. 
The only control for these diseases is the removal of the dis- 
eased part by pruning. 

How to Remove Large Branches. — It often happens that in 
order to obtain the best results in removing large limbs two 



152 



PRUNING OF PLANTS 



cuts must be made. The branch should be sawed oft' about 
a foot above the point of its origin in order to prevent the 
spHtting down and the tearing oft' of a large portion of bark. 
To do this, first cut away a large portion of the branch, which 
will aid in lessening the weight of the limb. Next make a 
cut on the under side of the branch about half-way through 
the limb and then finish the removal of the branch by sawing 
it through from the top. 




Fig. 66. — Method of cutting off a large limb. Note the two cuts. Dotted 
line indicates where the last cut should be made after the limb has been 
removed. 



Pruning the Top of a Plant. — The pruning of the branches of 
a plant is the only way of forming a good symmetrical top. 
The forming of the head of a tree is by far the most important 
operation in the growing of a plant. This is true not only of 
the commercial orchard but of the home orchard or the orna- 
mental garden. Shade trees also require some systematic 
pruning, because their beauty largely depends upon the uni- 
formity of their top both in their dormant as well as in their 
green state. 



SUMMER PRUNING 153 

When the top of a plant is pruned, it requires judgment and 
experience. If a tree is the plant which is to be pruned, the 
most important consideration is the location of the branches 
along the trunk, which is to form the framework of the tree. 
It makes little difference what kind of a tree you are pruning 
at this early stage, the principal consideration should be the 
even and equal distribution of the side branches along the 
trunk. There should be no crotches allowed to remain, and 
the branches should be distributed uniformly, so that the 
tree will be well balanced. 

In most trees it is desirable to have the main structural 
branches of the tree composed of from three to five limbs of 
about equal size. A tree should never be allowed to divide 
into two limbs which again subdivide because a tree of this 
type is more likely to split. 

If a bush or a bramble is to be pruned, the proper way 
is to remove a certain number of the canes. These canes 
should be cut off close to the surface of the ground. The 
remainder can be headed back if necessary. 

Pruning the Roots of a Plant. — ^The pruning of the roots 
of any plant is necessary whenever transplanting is done. 
Root pruning is imperative in order to remove any broken 
or mutilated roots. All of the irregular roots should be 
shortened or entirely removed. If any roots are killed the 
dead portions should be cut away until the living part is 
reached. The pruning should be done with a sharp knife. 
A slanting cut should be made and in such a way that the 
cut surface will be on the underside of the root. When the 
tree is placed in position the cut surfaces should come in 
contact with the soil either at the sides or the bottom of the 
hole. 

Summer Pruning. — ^The pruning of certain plants in the 
summer is important from several standpoints. This is 
particularly true of young trees. The energy of a young 
plant should be directed toward the development of a stout 
trunk and framework. If an exceptionally good tree is to be 
formed, careful attention should be given to the pinching off 
of the undesirable branches, while they are small,^and before 
they have used up very much of the plant food, which should 



154 PRUNING OF PLANTS 

go to other parts of the tree. During the early growth these 
branches are easily removed and can usually be brushed off 
very satisfactorily with the hands. 

Summer pruning is not only of value to the small trees but 
is practised to some extent on the larger trees. Under some 
conditions a tree will refuse to set fruit buds, and throw all 
its energy into the production of wood. A tree of this kind, if 
properly handled, can be made to produce fruit by summer 
pruning. To secure the desired results the pruning should 
usually be done before the season of growth ends, because 
earlier pruning starts new growth while late pruning gives 
no results. In summer pruning a part of the surplus wood is 
cut out and other branches headed back. This check in the 
growth of the plant at this time has a tendency to make 
fruit buds form. The benefit derived from summer pruning 
depends upon the ability of the pruner to regulate the pruning 
in such a way as to bring about early maturity. 

Winter Pruning. — ^The pruning of plants during the dormant 
period is usually spoken of as winter pruning. The dormant 
season is the tune the majority of pruning is done, par- 
ticularly of all of the woody plants. The winter is a good time 
to perform this operation for several reasons: The branches 
are not covered with leaves and are easier to remove. The 
framework of the tree is visible and the undesirable parts 
can easily be seen. In addition to these facts the tree is in a 
period of rest and the removal of a limb, by pruning, is no 
injury to the plant. Certain plants, like the grapes and maple 
trees, bleed profusely if not pruned while they are dormant. 

The Pruning of Young Trees.— The pruning of a young 
tree differs greatly from that of a mature tree. The object 
in the pruning of young trees is to shape their form and to 
develop a uniform and a symmetrical top. 

Young trees are always more vigorous growers than old 
ones. Greater annual growth is always made, and because 
of this rapid accumulation of wood it becomes necessary to 
shorten some of the branches and to entirely remove others, 
in order to prepare a good framework for the tree. Young 
trees are usually pruned more heavily than old trees. Pruning 
of a young tree should be done every year for at least five 



PRUNING OF BEARING TREES 



155 



or six 3^ears after the tree is planted. In some trees pruning 
will be necessary for a longer time. 

The Pruning of Bearing Trees. — ^As soon as a 3'oung tree 
has passed its formative period, when the general shape 
is developed, a modified pruning is necessary. This period 
is reached when the tree is 
from five to ten years old. 
It is now beginning to ap- 
proach the bearing time. 
Pruning at this time can 
be done in the summer 
and must be modified with 




Fig. 67. — The proper distribu- 
tion of the main branches on a 
young tree. 




Fig. 68. — Heading back of a one- 
year-old tree. 



the idea of trying to induce fruitfulness. No definite time 
can be set, but it is recommended that pruning be done 
at the time the terminal buds are forming on the ends of 
the shoots. At this time the terminal shoots may be cut 
back to a point where it is desired to force out new lateral 
branches. The results from such treatment are sometimes 



156 



PRUNING OF PLANTS 



immediate, and again they are not seen for two or three 
years. 

As the tree grows older, and the terminal growth tln-eatens 
to become excessively long, it should be cut back, and the 
tree thinned out. This pruning is usually done some time in 
June, although it should usually be distributed over two 
periods in order to avoid excessive pruning at one time. 



1 


V^KjI^MH^^;^^! 


1 


r '^H^L^^Hl^^HHHk^^^^^^^^^^^B^^BI 


1 


^HK^^^^^K^' 


1 




1 




1 


HP « 


H 


H^A;' *- 


'. i 


Wm^<- 




Hkx . ' ' ' 




Fig. 69. — The proper way to cut off 
a large limb. Note how the wounds 
are healing. 



Fig. 



70. — A large wound en- 
tirely healed over. 



The Pruning of Old Trees. — ^The object in pruning an old 
tree is merely to keep the branches thinned out, to remove any 
water sprouts that may occur and to take out all limbs that 
are interfering with each other. If the tree has been system- 
atically pruned during its early growth very little pruning will 



PRUNING OF OLD TREES 



157 



be necessary as the tree gets older. Occasionally large limbs 
must be cut oft' for various causes. When this operation is 
made necessary, care must be taken to make clean, smooth 
cuts. The wounded part should be covered with some 




Fig. 71. — An injured tree repaired with cement. 



material like white lead paint to protect the open cut. Occa- 
sionally grafting wax is used, but this material is expensive 
and not very satisfactory. Other materials have often been 
recommended, but the safest course to follow is to apply those 



158 PRUNING OF PLANTS 

materials which are known to be safe and efficient. The 
wound dressing should be appHed carefully and the careless 
daubing of the surrounding bark should be avoided. 

When pruning old trees the operator should be furnished 
with good tools, and particularly good pruning saws. These 
tools must be sharp so that clean, smooth surfaces are made. 

REVIEW QUESTIONS. 

■1. Define pruning. 

2. Name three causes for pruning. 

3. Why do plants require pruning? 

4. Tell how a wound on a plant is healed. 

5. What is meant by balance or equihbrium of a plant? 

6. How are these influenced by pruning? 

7. Discuss the proper time for the pruning of plants. 

8. What is meant by summer and winter pruning? 

9. What materials are best suited for protecting a wound? 

10. Why are special pruning tools advisable? 

11. What defects are found in a double-edge pruning saw? 

12. What is the proper way to remove a large limb? 

13. Distinguish between the pruning of a young and an old tree. 

14. Discuss the pruning of a bearing tree. 

15. What causes give rise to the necessity of pruning? 

16. Discuss the effects of pruning. 

17. Discuss top pruning of a plant. 

18. Give the differences in the pruning of the branches and the roots of a 
plant. 

19. What benefit is derived from summer pruning? 

20. How does winter pruning differ from summer pruning? 



CHAPTER X. 
HARVESTING AND MARKETING. 

The grower is the producer. He is the man who furnishes 
produce, and this is true with fruits and vegetables as well as 
all agricultural crops. Most growers are honest, but they are 
poor business men, and their lack of knowledge concerning 
business ways often cause many failures. The producer 
should realize that it is not only necessary to grow the 
produce well, but it is equally as important to harvest it 
properly. If the produce is well harvested and properly 
packed there is a market for it. There is always a demand for 
fancy or first-class products, but poor and second-class goods 
are usually a loss to the producer. 

Harvesting Produce. — All produce, whether vegetables or 
fruit, must be carefully hai vested. It is essential to gather it 
at the proper time. The time for picking produce necessarily 
varies, and it is determined chiefly as to whether it is for local 
or for distant consumption. 

All produce that is harvested should be made presentable. 
Such crops as the potatoes, radishes, turnips and a few 
others should be washed before they are sold. Some crops 
should also be graded in order to make a uniform package. 

Many of the horticultural crops should be harvested at 
a definite time. This is particularly true of such crops as 
the strawberries, blackberries, tomatoes, melons, sweet corn 
and many others. If these crops of a perishable nature are 
allowed to remain too long on the plant they become inferior 
in quality, and in many cases they are a total loss. Crops 
of this kind should be harvested as soon as they are ripe and 
they should never be allowed to become over-ripe, because 
an over-ripe product is as worthless as a green product. 

Harvesting Period. — The period during which all crops 
should be harvested varies with the crop. Certain crops, as 



160 HARVESTING AND MARKETING 

for example the potato, late cabbage, apples, peaches and 
many others, can be harvested at one time and as soon as the 
crop is matured. Other crops like the melon, peppers, 
cucumbers, summer squash and several more can be harvested 
over a longer period of time. Prompt picking of the indi- 
vidual specimens of the latter class is important. In a few 
crops like the sweet corn, peas and green beans the harvesting 
period is short but it extends over several days and two or 
three pickings are usually necessary in order to gather the 
entire crop. Such fruits as the blackberiies, raspberries and 
strawberries often require many pickings before the crop is 
harvested, while other plants like the radishes, beets and 
carrots must be picked at different times to insure good 
quality. 

The market to a large degree regulates the time at which 
some crops are harvested. If the price is high, it often pays 
to harvest a few crops before they are matured, as, for 
example, the potato. The increase in the price more than 
offsets the loss in the yield. This early harvesting of the crop 
is often done in the case of the early cabbage, the lettuce and 
the spinach. When the price is high and the crop is harvested 
before it is matured it should not be removed from the plant 
until the time arrives to sell it. Some immatured crops, as, 
for example, the potato will only keep for a short time after 
they are removed from the plant. Premature harvesting 
of a few crops is very profitable, but judgment should be 
exercised when this practice is followed. 

Care of Produce between Harvesting and Marketing. — All 
produce which is perishable must be carried to a cool place 
as soon as it is picked from the plant. Exposure to the sun 
should be avoided. When the produce remains in the field 
for a short time after it is gathered and before it is packed it 
should be shaded or covered up. The exposure of produce to 
winds is very detrimental and causes it to wilt and to dry 
out. Exposure of any kind injures the quality and reduces 
the price. All vegetables and fruits contain a large percent- 
age of water, which gives the ciispness and freshness to them. 
The amount of water present usually determines the value 
of the produce. Therefore any means which can be used to 



KINDS OF PACKAGES 161 

hold this water in the fruit or the vegetable will not only 
improve its quality but will increase the price which it will 
bring when it is placed upon the market. 

Certain crops must be washed and graded before they are 
packed. Whenever washing is necessary, handle the produce 
carefully and do not scratch or tear the skin. Any injury to 
the skin gives an opportunity for mould and bacteria to get 
into the injured part and the product will rot. The marring 
of the skin in any way also detracts from the looks of the 
package. Some crops like the radishes and the carrots must 
not only be washed but they must be graded and tied in 
bunches before they are sent to the market. The harvesting, 
grading, washing and packing should be done without delay 
and as soon as the crop is taken from either the plant or the 
soil. 

Grading Produce. — x\ll of our fruits and vegetables should be 
graded. The chief reason for grading is the poor impression 
a mixed lot of produce gives to the buyer. A few large apples 
or potatoes in a barrel do not add to the value of the pack- 
age but only emphasize the lack of uniformity of the lot. In 
grading pick out all of the large specimens as well as the small 
ones and make the carrier contain produce of one size. This 
method of grading makes the package uniform, attracts the 
eye and pleases the buyer. It is not always the large speci- 
mens that bring the best price, but rather the uniform 
appearance of the package that is of the greatest value. 

Kinds of Packages. — ^The style of package varies greatly 
and is determined by the product to be packed. Fruit is 
usually packed in either boxes or barrels. The size of the 
boxes vary, but they usually hold approximately one bushel 
of fruit. Box apples are generally fancy fruit. In the 
eastern fruit-growing sections the barrel is the usual package 
for apples while in the western regions the box is the most 
popular. The barrel holds about three bushels and is very 
convenient for storage and for shipment. 

Vegetables are packed in many different styles of vessels 

and many high-class products are placed in special baskets 

or cartons. A few crops as, for example, the cabbage is 

marketed in ventilated barrels, which are made by cutting 

U 



1G2 



HARVESTING AND MARKETING 



out a part of several staves of the barrel so that air can 
circulate through the produce. Sometimes cabbage is packed 
in crates made of slats, which will hold about one hundred 
heads. 

Celery' is shipped in small flat boxes. These boxes are 
called celery crates and vary slightly in size, depending 
upon the locality. 




Fig. 72. — A good type of celery crate, well packed. 



Tomatoes are packed in baskets, which fit into special 
crates. When the tomatoes are packed in crates they are 
usually intended for long-distant shipment. For local trade, 
however, the half-bushel split market basket is the most 
popular. 

Potatoes are usually marketed in gunny sacks, but some- 
times they are delivered to the local trade in bushel baskets. 

This variation in packages is due largely to the locahty 
in which the product is grown and also as to whether it is 
a short- or a long-distance shipment. Occasionally special 
markets will demand a certain kind of a carrier, and the 
grower must then use that kind of a package. 



PACKING FOR LOCAL AND DISTANT MARKET 163 

It makes very little difference as to the kind of a package 
the grower markets his produce in if each container is filled 




Fig. 73. — The onion shipped 
in a loose woven sack. 




Fig. 74. — Showing the bulge on an 
orange box which is necessary for good 
packing. 



with a uniform product of the best quality. However, 
standardization of packages is fast becoming important. 

Preparing Produce for Local and Distant Market. — The time 
at which fruit and vegetables are picked is determined largely 
by the market. If the produce is sold in a local market it is 




Fig. 75. — Radishes and spinach packed in the Delaware basket. 



not harvested as soon as when it is sold in a distant market. 
It is always preferable to allow the produce to ripen upon 



164 



HARVESTING AND MARKETING 



the plant, because the quality is greatly improved. Produce 
can only be allowed to ripen upon the plant when a local 
market is used. In such cases the product is gathered one 
afternoon and sold early the next morning. By this method 
all produce is fresh and of good quality. 




Fig. 7G. 



-Celery cabbage wrapped separately and packed in uniform 
crates. 



The condition is very different if we are shipping to a dis- 
tant market. Ripe fruits or vegetables soon rot. The tissue 
is soft and the produce will not stand handling. Juices from 
one fruit often leak out and ruin an entire crate. Therefore 



Fig. 77. — Cauliflower packed in a ventilated crate. 

great care must be exercised in selecting and in harvesting 
produce for distant shipment. In almost every case the 
produce must of necessity be picked when it is partially 
matured and still green. This lack of maturity makes the 



QUALITY OF THE PACKAGE 165 

quality inferior, but it is the only way in which some products 
can be shipped. If the fruits are green, they are hard and 
firm and will stand transit. During shipment or shortly 
afterward, the produce will ripen, and will be ready for sale 
upon arriving at their destination, provided they have been 
properly selected at the time of harvesting. The tomato, 
melon and peach are some crops that are always picked 
green if they are to be shipped to a distant market. 

Packing for Local and for Distant Market. — ^The packing of 
produce for a local trade differs from the packing for a long- 
distance shipment. The products for home trade can often- 
times be marketed in a great variety of vessels. Grading is 
perhaps more important for the local trade than is the kind 
of a package and too often the proper grading of an article is 
overlooked for home consumption. Usually the home trade 
consumes the produce at once and no means of shipment is 
necessary. The produce can be delivered to the consumer in 
any vessel that is convenient as, for example, market baskets, 
bushel baskets, barrels and boxes. 

When long-distance shipments are made the kind of a pack- 
age becomes a very important problem. The grower must 
realize that he is dealing with men in a different section, and 
that his produce must arrive at its destination in good condi- 
tion. The packages must be uniform and not of varying sizes 
and shapes or there would be no means of ascertaining the 
value of his shipment. Each package must contain a definite 
quantity. The quality of the package must be uniform. In 
some cases each fruit must be wrapped separately as, for 
example, the tomato and the melon. Some crops like the 
celery must be tied up in bunches of a definite size. Lettuce 
is often packed in chopped ice, so that it will not wilt but will 
arrive at its destination in good condition. Strawberries 
are packed in special boxes which resemble large ice-boxes. 
A number of crates are placed in one of these large boxes and 
ice is packed in several compartments so that the berries 
will be cold and remain firm. 

Quality of the Package.— Inferior or mixed packages should 
never be made. A thing worth doing is worth doing well and 
attempted deception in a package is bound to react upon the 



166 HARVESTING AND MARKETING 

grower. Label your packages so that every buyer knows 
what he is purchasing. The quahty of the package should 
be plainly stated. The package should be labelled fancy 
No. 1 or No. 2, so that the buyer is not deceived. Always 
make the package uniform in contents, no matter what the 
grade might be. 

People in general have recognized that quality and not 
quantity in produce is what they want. Often a small lot of 
well selected and fancy produce will sell for more than a 
wagon load of rubbish. 

The home-grown product will oftentimes bring more than 
that shipped from regions where the crop is grown in great 
acreages. Occasionally the prices of the home-grown product 
is often several times that of the shipped product. This 
great difference in price is due largely to the quality, but the 
public is willing to pay for it. I have one case in mind with 
the tomato. A grower has consistently received considerably 
more for his home-grown fruit than was paid for the shipped 
product. This increase in price was due to the superior 
quality. There are numerous other cases, which could be 
mentioned to prove the value of quality. 

Standardized Grades and Packs. — A standard grade and 
pack is fast coming into practice. In fact it must ultimately 
be adopted if the best markets are to be considered. A 
standard grade is essential and imperative if we are to arrive 
at a definite price for a given product. Where all sizes, 
shapes and grades of products exist, the buyer has no guide 
on which to base his price, and, as a result, there is a great 
range in prices. With a standard to go by, the value of a 
product is easily established, which will be uniform over the 
country. 

The standard adopted will vary with the product. The 
bushel box containing so many apples is now practically 
standard and if we buy a box of apples in New York or in 
San Francisco we know just how many and what grade we 
are getting. This is also true of the oranges and the lemons. 
It is not true, however, of many of the other horticultural 
crops. For instance, the celery crate might contain two dozen 
bunches or ten dozen bunches, yet both are spoken of as a 



STANDARDIZED GRADES AND PACKS ]()7 

crate of celery with no means of ascertaining what quantity 
is represented. The same is true of some other crops that 
are sold by the bushel. The weight of this measure varies 
in the different states arid in Nebraska the standard weight 
of a bushel of onions is 57 pounds while in Iowa the standard 
weight is only 52 pounds or a difference of 5 pounds. Now 
suppose a buyer in Chicago purchases onions from both states 
by the bushel, he immediately^ meets with difficulty. Because 
of this varying condition over the country, some means of 
establishing a definite unit is necessary. The tendency, 
however, is to select the pound as a unit and in many places 
the bu^^ers are insisting on quotations by the hundred which 
is a definite unit and will be uniform in all states. This unit 
is also more satisfactory to the purchaser, because where 
products are purchased by the pound there is no chance for 
the vendor to "stack the measure," as is often done when 
buying by the measure. 

In addition to the standard pack or unit we should also 
establish standard grades of certain products. This practice 
is common with the apples and oranges, the fruit being 
graded into sizes. A standard grade is also attempted in the 
case of the potato, but it is not so easily accomplished . The 
United States Department of Agriculture recommends two 
standard grades for potatoes as follows: United States 
Grade No. 1 consists of sound potatoes of similar varietal 
characteristics which are perfectly free from dirt or other 
foreign matter, frost injury, sunburn, second growth, cuts, 
scab, blight, dry rot, and damage caused by disease, insects 
or mechanical means. The minimum diameter of the potatoes 
of the round varieties shall be one and seven-eighths inches 
and of potatoes of the long varieties one and three-quarter 
inches. In order to allow for variations incident to com- 
mercial grading and handling, 5 per cent., by weight of any 
lot may be under the prescribed size and in addition 3 per 
cent, by weight may be below the remaining requirement of 
this grade. United States Grade No. 2 consists of potatoes 
of similar varietal characteristics, which are practically free 
from frost injury or decay, and which are free from serious 
damage caused by dirt or other foreign matter, sunburn, 



168 HARVESTING AND MARKETING 

second growth, cuts, scab, blight, dry rot or other diseases, 
insects or mechanical means. The minimum diameter shall 
be one and one-half inches. In order to allow for variations 
incident to commercial grading and handling, 5 per cent, by 
weight of any lot may be under the prescribed size and in 
addition, 5 per cent, by weight may be below the remaining 
requirements of this grade. 

The establishing of definite grades for each product is not 
far distant and will not only be a decided advantage to the 
buyer but a great help to the producer. 

Packing Supplies. — The packing supplies are not numerous. 
A few of the most important are crates, wrapping paper, 
printed labels, cushions and packing tables. As the standardi- 
zation of products becomes more general, proper packing 
supplies will be greatly developed and. perhaps the number 
enlarged to conform to the set standard. 

All supplies should be purchased in advance of the harvest- 
ing time, because wdien you delay, much grief and disappoint- 
ment is bound to come. In buying, purchase liberally in 
order to have plenty of material so that you do not run out 
in the middle of your harvest. As s6on as the supplies arrive, 
check them over, and measure all of the material to see that 
it conforms to the standard pack. Do not accept second 
class material or any substitute from the specification that 
will break the standard pack. 

The boxes or crates should be nailed together before 
harvesting time begins, or at least as many as you can store 
conveniently. See that all crates are nailed securely in order 
to avoid breakage and consequently damage to the product 
and loss to the grower. 

A good supply of packing paper is necessary. This is 
more important in the packing of certain products such as 
apples, oranges, peaches, tomatoes and a few more than with 
some other products, and the nature of the crop grown will 
determine the necessity of this material. Be sure to have 
the paper cut the proper size because it is more convenient 
and saves time and labor. The paper used to wrap the 
product should be of a rather soft texture, with one side 
somewhat smooth. For the wrapping of certain products 



MARKETING AGENCIES 169 

the most progressive growers have their names and some 
monograph printed on each wrapper. This lends dignity 
to the pack and estabhshes and advertises the brand. 

Every crate or box that leaves the grower should be 
labelled. The label should be attractive but not gaudy. 
Subdued colors that harmonize are to be preferred. The 
label should display some scene in the growing of the crop 
or something to call attention to the attractiveness and 
value of the product. In addition it should plainly state 
the quality and quantity included in the pack and by whom 
it was grown. A trade mark should be established and 
registered. 

Marketing Agencies. — There are five distinct marketing 
agencies, namely the broker, jobber, commission man, 
retailer and selling associations. These overlap occasionally 
although they are distinct in purpose. The direct method of 
selHng from producer to consumer is gaining in importance 
and having its effect on the market, but the middle man, so 
called, will always fill a place in large transactions and is 
a force to be considered. Each has a special function in 
business and each is necessary. 

The Broker. — ^The broker is a medium of communication 
between the buyer and the seller. Sometimes the grower 
will sell his goods through a broker in some distant town 
which makes the broker virtually the agent for the grower. 
Oftentimes a broker is an agent for many growers in all 
parts of the country and handles many different products. 
A broker also sells direct to the retailer but more especially 
to the jobber or to the commission man. 

The Commission Man. — A common way of selling produce 
is for the grower to consign a shipment of products to a man 
who disposes of it on a certain percentage or commission. 
Such a man is called a commission man. Some commission 
men are honest and some are not and as a class they have 
come into general disfavor. The fault, however, is not always 
with the commission man but many times the growers are 
at fault. The growers often ship their produce in poor shape 
and it arrives at the market in a deplorable condition and the 
commission man is given the credit for the low price received 



170 HARVESriNG AND MARKETING 

for it. Nevertheless the commission men have done a great 
deal to develop the produce industry and we will probably 
never be able to dispense with them. The grower should 
assure himself of the honesty and integrity of the commission 
man before dealing with him. 

TJie Jobber. — A jobber is a man that usually purchases 
produce from the commission man. Such men usually have 
a special trade such as hotels, clubs and some retail stores 
which they supply with their commodities. The jobber also 
buys direct from the grower and might also buy from the 
broker. His function is chiefly to buy in rather large quanti- 
ties and parcel the produce out to smaller buyers or retailers. 

The Retailer.-^The retailer is the man that sells direct to 
the consumer. He depends upon getting his supply from the 
commission man, the jobber, and in many cases direct from 
the grower. Seasonable products are oftentimes purchased 
from the grower, but during off seasons and out of season 
products must be purchased from other agencies. As a rule 
the retailer must look to the jobber or commission man to 
keep him supplied uniformly throughout the year with all 
commodities. This serves then to emphasize the impor- 
tance of the jobber and commission man in maintaining a 
steady supply of products the year round. Oftentimes a 
grower will ship direct to the retailer, but in such cases the 
grower should pack his product especially for the retailer 
and aim to establish a name for his products. 

Selling Associations. — ^The selling association is the most 
recent development in the manner of disposing of products. 
The principle of an association of this kind is through the 
union of a number of growers of a certain crop. It is devel- 
oped chiefly to help the grower realize a fair profit by doing 
away with some of the middlemen. 

Selling associations are greatly developed along the Pacific 
coast and were perhaps perfected to the greatest degree in 
that region because of the long distance to ship and the 
need of cooperation among the growers. At the present 
time this form of selling is gaining in popularity and many 
associations are being formed in all parts of the country. 

The most effective way of handling an association is to 



TRANSPORT A TION 171 

combine a number of small associations into a large organi- 
zation where each small association has a representative. A 
larger association has the advantage of greater sales, it can 
furnish valuable information to the grower at less expense, 
it is in constant touch with all the markets and it prevents 
over-supply in one market and a shortage in another. The 
distribution is also very efficient and the field is covered more 
evenly at a minimum of expense. 

In the purchase of supplies it has an advantage. When 
spray materials and machinery are purchased in large 
quantities and in carloads they can be purchased at a lower 
price, which is impossible where individual growers attempt 
to buy only for their own needs. 

Transportation. — Produce is shipped in two ways, either by 
express or by fast freight in refrigeration cars. If the distance 
is short, express is perhaps the better; but when long dis- 
tances are covered it becomes necessary to ship by fast 
freight and to have the produce packed in ice-cooled cars. 
Long-distance shipments require carload lots. 

These cars are practically large ice-boxes. The produce is 
cooled, if possible, before it is placed in the cars, but this 
cooling is not always necessary. After the produce is loaded 
and packed the cars are iced and tightly closed up. By 
handling the produce in this manner it arrives in excellent 
condition, and oftentimes fruits and vegetables are shipped 
thousands of miles, arriving on the market in a fresh state. 

Perhaps no greater impetus has been given to horticulture 
than the invention of the iced or the refrigerator car. Before 
this means of transportation came into use, long-distance 
shipments of perishable produce were impossible. Only 
short hauls could be made, and many times the express rate 
was so high that the shipping of produce was prohibitive. 
Improved transportation has opened up great areas for the 
production of fruit and vegetables. Before refrigeration cars 
came into general use this area was only cheap farm lands. 
Fast freight with iced cars has made it possible to have 
fresh fruit and vegetables on all markets the entire year, and 
at prices which are not prohibitive for the general public. 



172 HARVESTING AND MARKETING 



REVIEW QUESTIONS. 

1. Why is it important to harvest all produce carefully? 

2. Why does the harvesting period vary? Give several examples. 

3. What factors tend to cause the harvesting period to change? 

4. What care is necessary to preserve the highest quality in produce 
after it is gathered? 

5. Discuss the value of grading produce. 

6. Why is it necessary to have a variety of packages for shipping pro- 
duce? 

7. Why must produce for the home market be handled differently from 
that for a distant market? 

8. Discuss the packing of produce for the local and for the distant 
market. 

9. How does the quahty of the package increase its value? 

10. What is meant by standardization of grades and packs? 

11. Why is a standard pack essential? 

12. Name and discuss a few packing supplies. 

13. What are marketing agencies? 

14. How does a broker differ from a commission man? 

15. What is the chief objection to a commission man? 

16. What is meant by a middle man? 

17. What is the function of a jobber? 

18. How does a jobber differ from a broker? 

19. What is a retailer? 

20. On what principles do selling associations operate? 

21. Discuss the two ways of shipping produce. 



CHAPTER XL 
WINTER PROTECTION OF PLANTS. 

The winter care of plants is important. The death of a 
large number of our favorite flowers and shrubs is due to neg- 
lect. A plant, like an animal, needs protection even though 
it is partially hardy. Oftentimes abnormal seasons will kill 
many of our plants, if no protection is given to them. A 
strong wind will not only break down the plants but will 
cause the branches and the twigs to dry out to such a degree 
that the plant cannot recover in the spring. A sudden burst 
of warm weather during the winter months is very destructive 
to many kinds of vegetation. These warm spells often cause 
the buds to start growth, which are later killed by more cold 
weather. If the plants are properly cared for and protected 
in some manner this injury is prevented. Alternate freezing 
and thawing is injurious to plant life and it should be pre- 
vented whenever it is possible. All of our plants should be 
held in a dormant state during the cold weather and the 
closer we maintain this condition the greater success we will 
have in the wintering of our plants. 

Fall Preparation of a Plant.— There are only a few people 
who realize that the winter protection of a plant should 
begin during the late summer. In order to have the plant 
ripen up its wood, preparatory to going into the winter, the 
water supply must be reduced. When a plant is allowed to 
grow rapidly until late in the. season, the plant tissue is filled 
with new cells, the cells are gorged with water, and much of 
the tissue is soft and green. A plant entering the winter in 
such a condition is siu-e to be injured and sometimes die. 

The chief object then, in the fall preparation of a plant, is to 
check the growth, or at least to retard it to such a degree 
that the plant tissue will harden and the wood will ripen. 
The leaves should fall naturally and the leaf scars be perfectly 
formed. 



174 WINTER PROTECTION OF PLANTS 

There are several ways of making the plant ripen up its 
wood. The principal method is to check its growth in the 
late summer by the lack of water. The supply of water is 
reduced by either stopping the cultivation of the soil, or by 
planting some quick growing crop. The late growing plants 
will rob the soil of its moisture and thereby take it away from 
the plant you intend to winter over. In orchards the trees 
are ripened by planting a cover crop, such as rye or clover, 
late in the summer. This cover crop is allowed to grow the 
remainder of the season. These quick growing crops rapidly 
exhaust the soil of its moisture and permit the greenwood 
of the trees to ripen up before going into winter. 

Winter Killing of a Plant. — Some of the horticultural plants 
are often killed by exposure to the cold weather. Such a 
condition is called winter killing. In some cases only a part 
of a plant is winter-killed, while in others the entire plant is 
killed. Winter killing of plants is not due to any disease or 
any insect, but it is due only to exposiu*e. Authorities 
differ as to what is the direct cause of winter killing. It is 
thought, however, by many horticulturists that the death 
of the plant is caused by the loss of water from the branches 
of unprotected plants together with severe weather. Trans- 
piration, as well as evaporation of the water in a woody 
plant, takes place in the winter as well as in the summer. If 
this loss of water becomes excessive, due to an abnormal 
winter, many plants are killed. Strong winds or prolonged 
warm weather during the dormant season is sure to cause 
much winter killing, unless the plant is protected in some 
way. Winter killing is also caused when the plants are not 
properly hardened before going into the winter. 

Perhaps there is no better way of preventing winter killing 
than to protect a plant from extreme exposure. The plant 
can be protected from exposure either by building wind 
breaks, or by covering the individual plants with material 
of various kinds such as rye straw, burlap and manure. 

The Winter Care of Herbaceous Plants. — Plants whose tops 
die down on the approach of cold weather while their roots 
remain alive in the soil over winter are called hardy herbace- 
ous plants. Such plants as the peony, rhubarb and asparagus 



WINTER CARE OF WOODY PLANTS 175 

are examples of the hardy herbaceous plants. These plants 
need special care if the roots are going to remain alive and 
produce the greatest yields the following spring. 

The roots of such plants are comparatively shallow. The 
depth varies from six inches to possibly a foot. This depth is 
not below the frost line and consequently the roots are 
frozen. Since the roots of such plants are large and fleshy 
it is very important to keep these parts frozen when once they 
are in that condition. The alternate freezing and thawing of 
such parts is injurious to the plants and reduces their vitality. 
The freezing itself is not injurious but the roots must not be 
allowed to thaw out until spring. 

The chief way of preventing the alternate freezing and 
thawing of the roots is to cover the soil over the roots with 
fresh horse manure that has plenty of litter in it. The 
manure should consist largely of straw with a small percentage 
of the solid matter. It should be placed over the roots after 
the ground has frozen slightly and should cover the soil to a 
depth of from 8 to 10 inches. The manure in addition to 
serving as a protection for the roots adds plant food to the 
soil which increases the growth of the plant the following 
spring. 

The Winter Care of Woody Plants. — ^Woody plants include 
all those plants whose tops do not die down during the 
winter. Our common trees and shrubs are good examples. 
Many of the woody plants are able to withstand the cold 
weather under natural conditions. Occasionally when culti- 
vation is prolonged too late in the season, many plants are 
injured and sometimes killed. Occasionally some tender 
trees as, for example, the peach must be protected in certain 
regions to prevent them from being frozen back. Likewise 
many bushes and brambles must be given some protection 
in exposed locations. 

The branches of the brambles and the low growing bushes 
are called canes. The canes as a rule have a soft substance 
in their center called pith. The pith in such canes prevents 
them from being solid and in some cases seems to render the 
plants less hardy. Common examples of plants with a pithy 
center are the raspberries, blackberries and roses. 



176 



WINTER PROTECTION OF PLANTS 



Winter protection for plants of this kind is often necessary. 
Sometimes the plantation is shielded by a board fence or a 
natural wind break of trees. In other cases strawy manure 




Fig. 78. — Protecting a small bush by a straw mulch. 

is piled up through the canes and covered over the ground. 
Many times each plant is given a protection of its own. 
This latter method is used frequently on the roses. 




Fig. 79. — Baby rambler roses entirely covered with straw for the winter. 



The rose having several forms offers a good example for 
discussion. The canes of upright growing bushes should first 
be firmly tied together with a cord. Some fibrous material^ 



WINTER CARE OF WOODY PLANTS 



177 



preferably long rye straw, is secured and is packed about the 
canes and tied firmly around the bush. Occasionally a strip 




Fig. 80. — Climbing roses which have been taken from their supports and 
heavily mulched with straw for the winter. 

of burlap or a gunny sack is tied over the straw as an addi- 
tional protection to the plant. Other types of roses like 




A good way to protect tender trees. 



the climbing a arieties are often taken down from their sup- 
ports and laid on the ground. After they are placed in an 
12 



178 WINTER PROTECTION OF PLANTS 

orderly manner on the ground they are covered up with straw 
to a depth of two or three feet. This treatment keeps the 
plant in a dormant state until late in the season and prevents 
alternate freezing and thawing of the roots and the branches. 
If the rose bushes are small and planted in beds all of the 
plants in the bed can be covered up w^ith straw. The straw 
should be placed over the plants rather loosely and not 
packed firmly around them except along the edges of the bed. 

Mulching the Soil. — The mulching of the ground is a 
great benefit to all plants. Not all plants need the mulch 
as a protection, but many are greatly benefited in growth 
by having this treatment. Plants like the rhubarb and the 
asparagus, while not requiring a mulch, profit from it. These 
plants usually require no mulch as a protection but the 
growth the following spring is more rapid and the plants 
are of better quality if the ground is mulched with manure 
during the winter. The plant food w^hich is found in the 
manure gradually washes out and is deposited m the soil. 
The water soaking through the manure gives an available 
supply of plant food early in the spring for the new growth. 
The mulching of the soil also prevents the freezing of the 
gromid to such a great depth, and this often is an advantage 
to the plant. When a soil is covered with a mulch it helps 
to hold the snow and the rain and stores up more moisture 
in the ground. Likewise it prevents the loss of water by 
retarding the evaporation from the surface. 

Several materials are used for mulches. Straw, leaves, 
coarse manure, prairie grass and hay are among the chief 
materials selected for this purpose. The horse manure, 
including the litter, is the best, and it should be used when- 
ever it is possible to secure it. 

The methods of placing the mulching material around the 
plants differ slightly. Where the plant is small and stands 
alone the mulch is piled around the plant for a distance 
of 2 or 3 feet. The depth of the mulch varies and is deter- 
mined by the nature of the material. If leaves are used 
for mulching they can be placed 2 or 3 feet deep. Usually 
some means of holding the leaves in place and in preventing 
them from blowing away will be necessary. The depth to 



SPRING TREATMENT OF MULCHED PLANTS 179 

which manure is placed around the plants depends upon its 
composition. When two-thirds of the manure is litter, a 
greater amount can be piled around the plant, than when it 
consists largely of solid matter. A conservative amount of 
the ordinary horse manure to mulch the ground around a 
plant is about 1 foot. The mulch should not be piled against 
the plant but it should begin about 3 or 4 inches away from 
it . When the mulching material is piled up against the plant 
it often induces mice to harbor near it and these rodents 
sometimes eat the bark and cause the death of the plant. 

The beds of herbaceous perennial plants should be mulched 
ever}^ fall. Plants like the peonies, rhubarb, asparagus, 
strawberries and many others respond wonderfully to such 
treatment. Herbaceous perennial plants are usually set in 
beds and placed rather closely together. Because of this 
method of growing, it is better to cover the entire bed with 
the mulch. Fresh horse manure which is composed largely 
of straw is the best kind of a mulch. The mulch should be 
spread on the ground before severe cold weather arrives. 
From 6 to 8 inches of the mulch is the proper amount to use. 
The material should be distributed uniformly over the bed. 

Spring Treatment of Mulched Plants. — The spring treat- 
ment of plants which have been mulched, differs according to 
the plant. The mulch around woody plants such as small 
ornamental trees and bushes, like the roses, should not be 
removed. By the time spring arrives the mulch will have 
settled down and will hardly be noticeable. Two methods 
of treatment are employed in such cases. If the plants are 
not too small the mulch is usually left undisturbed and more 
added each year as the old material rots and gradually 
disappears by becoming a part of the soil. If the plants are 
larger and the mulch has been extended to the limit of the 
drip of the branches, it is usually spaded under and incor- 
porated with the soil to make more plant food. 

For herbaceous plants a somewhat different treatment is 
required. In such plants as the strawberries, rhubarb, 
asparagus and peonies the mulch is gently raked from the 
crown of the plants early in the spring, just as the new growth 
is starting. The material used for the mulch should not be 



180 WINTER PROTECTION OF PLANTS 

removed from the bed, but should be allowed to remain 
between the rows, and either spaded under or permitted to 
decay of its own accord on the bed. 

Winter Care of Bulbs and Roots. — The bulbs and the fleshy- 
rooted plants require a treatment similar to that of the 
herbaceous plants. The bulb and the fleshy root is a vege- 
tative part of a plant in a dormant state. A large amount of 
water is present in both, as well as plenty of plant food for 
the future use of the growing plant. The secret for their 
preservation is to prevent them from losing this stored up 
water, and drying up. 

The fleshy roots of some plants and many of the bulbs are 
hardy and will not be killed by freezing. For this class of 
plants greater success will be attained, if they are planted 
out in the open ground during August and September and 
allowed to remain out of doors. The depth to which the 
bulbs and the fleshy-rooted plants should be set varies, and 
ranges from 4 to 8 inches for the common ones. When 
freezing weather arrives the beds should be mulched with 
coarse horse manure. The manure should be removed as 
soon as the plants begin to grow in the spring. 

The treatment of the fleshy-rooted plants that are not 
hardy is more exact and is attended with less success. Plants 
like the canna which have thick, fleshy roots are also filled 
with water. Such roots will die if they are frozen. It is 
necessary therefore to dig them up and to store them over 
winter. These roots must not only be kept in the proper 
conditions by preventing the loss of water but they must also 
be stored in a cool place so that no growth will take place. 
To succeed in the storing of such roots the storage place must 
not be too damp or the roots will decay, yet it must have 
sufficient moisture to prevent them from drying out. The 
varying and the irregular conditions found in the ordinary 
houses makes it an extremely precarious place to successfully 
store fleshy-rooted plants. Perhaps the most ideal place for 
the storage of such plants would be in a cellar that is built 
underground which could be held at a temperature of about 
35° F. With this temperature and with good ventilation 
the moisture conditions will usually be ideal. 



WINTER CARE OF BULBS AND ROOTS 181 

When storing these plants first try to secure the best 
storage facihties. Then dig up the roots after the tops have 
been killed by frost, leaving some soil attached to them. 
The roots should be placed side by side on shelves built in the 
storage house. If the proper conditions are maintained the 
roots will come out of storage in the spring in excellent shape. 

Where only a few roots are kept over winter usually fair 
results can be had by collecting the roots and packing them 
in sand in one corner of the cellar. They should be kept as 
cool as possible and if they are found to be drying out during 
the winter the sand should be sprinkled with water. 

REVIEW QUESTIONS. 

1. What is winter killing of plants? How is it caused? 

2. How does fall preparation of plants prevent winter killing? 

3. Why is winter protection of some plants necessary? 

4. How does the winter care of the herbaceous plants differ from that 
of the woody plants? 

5. Why is alternate freezing and thawing of the ground injurious to 
roots? 

6. What part of a plant is called the cane? 

7. In what two waj^s are plants protected from wind? 

8. Describe the method of wrapping woody plants. 

9. What is meant by mulching? 

10. What materials are used for mulching? 

11. What determines the depth of the mulch? 

12. How does the mulching of herbaceous plants differ from that of woody 
plants? 

13. Describe the spring treatment of mulched plants. 

14. How does the winter care of bulbs differ from that of fleshy-rooted 
plants? 

15. Describe the method of storing fleshy roots over winter. 



CHAPTER XII. 
THE STRAWBERRY. 

The strawberry is one of our best native fruits. It was 
found growing wild on our mountains and in our valleys by 
the earliest settlers. The native sort§ have been improved 
both by American as well as by European growers. Many of 
our first good varieties are said to have been sent to America 
from Europe, where they were first developed from our native 
plants. 

Propagation. — ^The strawberry is propagated by runners. 
The runner is an off -shoot from the parent plant. This off- 
shoot soon takes root as its tip and in a short time a new plant 
is developed. When the young plant is large enough the 
connection between it and the mother plant is cut and the 
young plant is set in a new location. If the young plant is not 
removed from the parent, the runner will perish as soon as 
the new plant is large enough to nourish itself. 

The strawberry should not be propagated from seed unless 
new varieties are wanted. The great variation in plants 
grown from seeds is not desirable for a bearing patch, because 
the grower is sure to get many types of fruit, which will 
ripen at different times and be generally inferior in every 
respect. When a good variety does appear from seed it 
should be planted separately and propagated by runners. 

Renewal of the Bed. — ^The strawberry bed is rarely ever 
profitable after three years and it should then be renewed. 
The renewal of the bed should begin soon after the picking 
season is over. The old plants should be cut off, allowed to 
dry, raked up with any remaining mulch which is on the bed 
and all burned. If the refuse material is raked to the center 
of the rows and piled in small wind rows and burned on a 
windy day, very little, if any damage will be done to the 



SOIL 183 

plants. The old plants in the center of the rows should now 
either be plowed out or spaded under, leaving the young 
plants to make the new bed for the next year. This method 
of renewal can be employed once and sometimes twice on the 
same piece of ground. However, better results will be had if 
the young plants are taken from the old patch and set out in 
another location for the new bed. The old bed can then be 
plowed up and planted to some other crop. 

Soil. — The strawberry has a wide adaptation to soils. It 
will grow well on most any type. A sandy loam with a porous 
subsoil which insures good drainage is perhaps the best type 
to select when it is available. 

The soil for the strawberry should be well supplied with 
organic matter which is in a well decomposed state. New 
lands which have been recently cleared of timber produce 
large and profitable crops of strawberries. vSuch lands abound 
in leaf mould and are rich in organic matter and in humus. 

The varieties differ considerably in their soil requirement. 
Some are well adapted to soils in certain localities, while 
other varieties in the same section are failures and decidedly 
unprofitable. Certain other varieties are very cosmopolitan 
with regard to the soil and enjoy a wide popularity. These 
varieties have given good satisfaction in many localities, 
therefore they should usually be selected by the amateur. 

A thorough preparation of the soil before planting saves 
much future disappointment. The grower should not be 
satisfied with the cultivation which is given to ordinary farm 
crops because additional preparation is always profitable. 
The soil should be pulverized and reduced to a fine state of 
division if the strawberry is to succeed. In preparing the 
land plow moderately deep, say about 8 inches. If the land 
is in grass fall plowing is desirable. A cultivated crop such as 
corn should be planted the first year to insure good culti- 
vation of the soil. This procedure will help eradicate the 
white grub which is often present in sod land and which is 
very destructive to the strawberry plant. 

The soil should be retentive of moisture but not wet. 
Where excess water is present drainage is necessary. The 
berries draw heavily upon the soil water in the maturing of 



184 THE STRAWBERRY 

the crop and plenty of moisture in the soil at ripening time 
is highly advantageous for success in the growing of the 
strawberry. INIany times artificial watering is very profit- 
able during the ripening period. 

Planting. — The strawberry can be planted either in the 
spring or in the fall. Spring planting is usually more desir- 
able because the ground can be prepared in the fall and is 
then ready for setting the plants out early. The latter part 
of March or the first of April is the most preferable time to 
reset the plants. The exact date must necessarily vary in the 
different sections. When the plants are set in the spring 
they have the advantage of a full season's growth and become 
more thoroughly mature. In some sections the planting is 
done later in the season, just after the berries have been 
harvested. This method is satisfactory if the soil is well 
prepared. The young plants are usually taken from the old 
patch and transplanted to their new location. However, it is 
usually necessary to water and to shade the plants at this 
time of the year unless the weather is cool and plenty of 
moisture is available. 

The plants must not be set too deeply. The crowns should 
not be covered up, although the plant should be set as deep 
as it is possible without injuring the crowns. The plants 
are set with either a dibble, a trowel, or a spade. The roots 
should be spread out slightly and the soil pressed firmly 
about them. The watering of the plants after setting them 
out will be of great value. 

System of Planting. — There are four systems of planting in 
common use: The hill system, the single hedge row system, 
the double hedge row system and the matted row system. 

Hill System . — ^The hill system is the growing of the plants 
singly in rows. Each plant is allowed to grow independently 
and no runners are permitted to form. In this method the 
entire strength of the plant is given over to the production of 
fruit, and the plants produce excellent large berries. This 
way of planting is very profitable when the grower is catering 
to a fancy market. 

The distance apart the plants are set depends upon whether 
hand or horse cultivation is practised. Where hand culti- 



SYSTEM OF PLANTING 



185 



vation is followed the plants are set 12 to 16 inches apart in 
the rows and the rows 18 to 24 inches apart. If horse culti- 
vation is used the rows must be 30 inches apart and the plants 
12 to 14 inches apart in the rows. 




Single Hedge Row System. — The single hedge row system 
differs from the hill system in that the runners are permitted 
to grow sufficiently to fill up the space between the original 
plants. As a rule each mother plant is allowed to produce two 



186 



THE STRAWBERRY 



runners, one on each side of the parent plant. If more 
runners appear they are removed. The plants in the rows 
should be set from 18 to 20 inches apart, and the rows from 
30 to 36 inches apart. 

Double Hedge Row System. — In the double" hedge row 
system the mother plant is allowed to develop from four to 
six plants around her. Should more runners appear they are 
removed. The grower should see that the plants are evenly 
distributed over the ground. The original plants should be 
set from 18 to 24 inches in the rows and the rows should be at 
least 36 inches apart. 




Fig. 84. — Matted row system. The plants are allowed to grow unmolested 
until they completely cover the ground. (After R. M. Kellogg.) 



Matted Row System. — This system of planting is widely 
used. When the plants are grown by this method they 
require less labor and usually produce larger yields. When 
growing the plants by this system, all of the runners are 
allowed to develop and to form a dense mat of plants. Many 
growers permit the runners to set plants until the row is 
from 18 to 24 inches wide, but this always produces many 
small, inferior berries. 

Cultivation. — ^The value of cultivation is not fully realized 
by many growers. The strawberry plants should be culti- 
vated frequently and thoroughly from the time the berries are 
picked until frost. Newly set patches must be well culti- 
vated the first year if a good crop is to be expected the next 



MULCHING 



187 



year. The ordinary cultivating tools are used. The weeds 
should be kept down and the runners cut off as they appear 
when they are out of place. 

The first season is the most critical time in the growth of 
the strawberry. Tillage is very important in bringing the 
plants through this crisis. The cultivation is valuable in 
keeping a dust mulch on the soil and in preventing the loss 
of water by evaporation. 




Fig. 85. — A pot-grown strawberry plant. 



Mulching. — In most of the northern states and in many of 
the southern sections the strawberries should be mulched. 
The best mulching materials are strawy manure with very 
little solid matter, clean straw or hay free from weed seeds. 
Occasionally other mulching materials such as leaves, pine 
needles, marsh hay or cotton-seed hulls are used. The 
mulch should be applied after the ground is frozen. If it is 



188 



THE STRAWBERRY 



put on too early the plants often start into growth too soon. 
Considering all materials, the clean straw is perhaps the best 
for mulching. 




Fig. 86. — A well-mulched strawberrj^ bed. 




Fig. 87. — A well-graded crate of strawberries packed in square pint boxes. 
(After Thompson, United States Department of Agriculture.) 

Harvesting.— The time of picking the strawberry depends 
upon the distance they are to be shipped. When they are 
grown for home consumption or for the local market they 



HARVESTING 



189 



should not be picked until they are thoroughly ripe, but not 
soft. If they are grown for a distant market they should be 




Fig. 88. — Crate of strawberries in octagon quart boxes. (After Thompson, 
United States Department of Agriculture.) 



w\ 


H 


n 


. ':^mm 


li^. 1 





Fig. 89. 



-A six-basket carrier used for picking strawberries 
Wicks, Arkansas Bulletin No. 122.) 



(After W. H. 



picked when they are about three-fourths ripe. The berries 
should not be picked before they are colored and they should 
have a short stem attached to them. 



190 



THE STRAWBERRY 



The berri(!S should be picked carefully and they should 
never be bruised or crushed in any way. 

Packing. — Strawberries should be carefully graded and 
sorted before they are packed. Each package should be 







O 



:^ 

^ 9 
^ ft 

c« O 
bC 



uniform and contain berries of one size. Occasionally the 
fruit is graded in the field, but the most satisfactory method 
is to have all of the berries graded and packed in a packing 
shed, and by experienced packers. 
The berries should be placed in the shade when they are 



VARIETIES 



191 



picked. As soon as the fruit is placed 
in crates they should be sent directly 
to the refrigerator, because the heat 
quickly injures the fruit. 

The strawberry is marketed in 
many styles of boxes and crates. 
They vary in size and in shape. The 
capacity of the boxes ranges from 
scant pints to full quarts, but there 
is a growing tendency to a standard 
full size quart box. The American 
type of box is most generally used. 
The octagon box is objectionable 
because of its shape and the raised 
bottom. The boxes are packed in 
crates of varying sizes and range from 
24 to 32 quarts. In some sections a 
larger crate is sometimes used, but 
it is not so very satisfactory. 

Varieties. — There has been a re- 
markable development in strawberries 
since the first variety gained prom 
nence. There are a great many 
varieties that can be grown with suc- 
cess in all localities, and the grower 
should collect evidence on the be- 
havior of different kinds in his region 
before determining upon any special 
variety. Some sorts will grow well 
on one class of soil while others will 
be a failure on that same soil, and 
only local experience can determine 
the best variety for a given section. 

The grower must also remember 
that the strawberry is divided into 
two classes based upon the kind of 



Fig. 91. — Pistillate or female and staminate or male flowers of the strawberry 
plant. (Cniickshank, Ohio State University.) 



192 THE STRAWBERRY 

flowers that it produces One class of plants is known as the 
pistillate or imperfect varieties while the other class is the 
staminate or the perfect type. The imperfect varieties have 
flowers with only pistils and will not produce fruit unless 
fertilized with other varieties that have stamens, while the 
perfect varieties have stamens as well as pistils, and are 
capable of producing fruit alone. Unless the male and the 
female parts are both present there can be no fruit. In 
selecting a variety it is necessary either to select a variety 
that has perfect flowers or to alternate the rows of plants 
that have imperfect flowers with those that have the perfect 
flowers. Where the rows are alternated the varieties must 
both bloom at the same time in order to have the fruit set. 
The amateur should usually confine his selection to the perfect 
flowered varieties. Usually two or three varieties are better 
to grow than only one, even if all of them are perfect flowered 
sorts. 

The following list of varieties comprises a few of the most 
cosmopolitan sorts: Early Varieties — ^August Luther, Ex- 
celsior, Crescent and Warfield. Medium Early Varieties — 
Dunlap, Glen Mary and Bubach. Late Varieties — Gandy, 
Sample, and Brandywine. 

DISEASES OF THE STRAWBERRY. 

The strawberry is notably free from disease. It is rarely 
ever necessary to spray the plants, provided the proper 
cultural methods are followed. There are, however, several 
diseases which might become troublesome. 

Leaf Spot. — ^The leaf spot is the most commonly known 
disease of the strawberry. This disease makes its appearance 
in the form of small, discolored spots on the leaves. These 
spots appear most abundantly at the flowering period. The 
spots are first reddish or purplish, but as they grow older 
the centers become a whitish color and the death of the 
tissue is the result. The spots are scattered irregularly over 
the leaves, and when they are abundant several may join 
together to make one large spot. 

Certain varieties are more or less free from this disease, 



INSECTS OF THE STRAWBERRY 193 

while others are very susceptible to it. The best means of 
control is to select disease resistant varieties so far as pos- 
sible. Only the most healthy plants should be set and all 
spotted leaves should be pinched off. A thorough spraying 
with Bordeaux mixture may be given before the flowers 
open. If the disease becomes quite serious some relief may 
be had by mowing off the leaves and burning over the bed, 
which should be done just after the fruiting season. 

Mildew. — The mildew of the strawberry is similar to that 
on any other plant. The disease covers the berries and the 
leaves with a whitish growth of webby material. It usually 
causes the leaves to curl up and die. Spraying with Bor- 
deaux mixture or dusting the plants with flowers of sulphur 
will usually control the mildew. 

INSECTS OF THE STRAWBERRY. 

Since the strawberry plants are grown for two or three 
years on the same land, are low growing, and set closely in 
rows, the control of the insects is based more particularly 
upon rotation of the crops, clean culture, fall plowing and 
similar practices rather than on spraying. The one crop 
method of producing strawberries greatly simplifies the 
insect problem. There are a number of insects that feed 
upon the different parts of the strawberry plant, but many of 
them never become serious and little attention is ever paid 
to them. 

Strawberry Leaf Roller. — The leaf roller is perhaps the most 
serious insect pest. It is a small greenish-brown caterpillar 
which folds two halves of the leaf together and feeds within 
the enclosed leaf. When the insects are abundant the foliage 
is destroyed, the fruit fails to mature and the plant is greatly 
weakened. 

The leaf roller can usually be controlled by spraying the 
plants with arsenate of lead at the rate of 2 pounds to 50 
gallons of water. The application of the insecticide must be 
timely and applied within a week after the first appearance 
of the moths or just before the young caterpillars begin to 
fold the leaves, 
13 



194 THE STRAWBERRY 

Strawberry Weevil. — In many parts of the country the 
weevil when abundant destroys from 50 to 60 per cent, of 
the crop each year. The insect is intermittent in its attack 
and will be numerous for several years then suddenly disap- 
pear and will cause no more trouble for some time, finally 
reappearing again. 

The adult insects hibernate over winter under rubbish 
near the straw^berry bed. In the spring they appear and after 
feeding for a short time lay their eggs in the unopened flower 
buds. In about a week the little grubs hatch and begin at 
once to eat the buds thus destroying them entirely. When 
the insects are numerous they often feed upon the foliage. 

The best means of control for this insect is by practising 
clean culture. 

In addition to the insects mentioned there are several 
more, but they rarely ever become troublesome. 

Nematodes. — Nematodes are small hair-like worms found 
in the soil. They are about yV ^^ 2ir ^^ ^^^ inch long. They 
are sometimes called eelworms and gall-worms. Nematodes 
produce knot-like enlargements on the roots at the points of 
infestation. They occur rather widely in soils where the 
climate is so mild throughout the year that the ground 
rarely freezes more than a very few inches deep. 

Strawberry plants are very susceptible to this parasite, 
and heavy losses occur in certain localities. 

The symptoms of infestation are seen when the foliage 
assumes an unhealthy appearance, and may wilt in hot 
weather, finally dying. In less severe cases the plants refuse 
to bear and soon become of no value. 

The only remedy is to free the soil of this parasite. In 
cold sections, fall plowing, that will expose them to severe 
freezing is effective. In other sections they must be starved 
out by planting crops that are either immune or highly 
resistant to them. A few crops used for this purpose are, 
corn, oats, rye, millet, wheat, peanuts and several varieties 
of cowpeas. It usually requires from two to three years to 
rid a soil of this pest. 



INSECTS OF THE STRAWBERRY 195 



SPRAYING OUTLINE FOR THE STRAWBERRY. 

Number of spray. Time to spray. Spray Materials. 

First .... When growth begins 4-4-50 Bordeaux mixture. 
Second . . . After picking of fruit 4-4-50 Bordeaux mixture. 

Also cut and burn all 
leaves on some windy 
day before spraying. 

At the first appearance of the leaf roller spray with 2 
pounds arsenate of lead to 50 gallons of water. This spray 
should be repeated every week if necessary until the fruit is 
about half -grown. 

REVIEW QUESTIONS. 

1. Where were the first good varieties of strawberries developed? Why? 

2. Why should the strawberry be propagated by runners instead of seed? 

3. Why is an old strawberry bed unprofitable? What is meant by 
renewal? 

4. Is the soil for the strawberry important? What determines the best 
type of soil to select? 

5. When is the best time to plant the strawberry? Why? 

6. What regulates the depth to which a plant can be set? 

7. Name the four systems of planting the strawberry. 

8. What is the difference between the single and the double hedge row 
system; the hill and the matted row system? 

9. W^hat system is the most economical? Why? 

10. When should the cultivation of the strawberry begin? 

11. What is the value of mulching a strawberry bed and when should the 
mulch be placed on the plants? 

12. What determines the selection of varieties of strawberries? 

1 3. Is the strawberry seriously affected wdth insects and diseases? 

14. How does the leaf spot differ from the mildew? What is the remedy 
for each? 

15. What is one of the best means for controlling the insects affecting 
the strawberry? 

16. Give the spray outline for the strawberry. 



CHAPTER XIII. 
BUSH FRUITS. 

The currant and the gooseberry are the two most impor- 
tant bush fruits. The gooseberry is not so well known as 
the currant, but it deserves more attention from the Ameri- 
can grower. In England the reverse is true and the goose- 
berry is very widely planted, and many varieties with very 
large fruit have been developed. The currant and the 
gooseberry are called bush fruits because the plants are 
low growing and are inclined to be bushy. The bush fruits 
should find a place in every garden because of their relia- 
bility. They rarely ever fail and are consistent bearers. 
These fruits are highly prized by many people for the mak- 
ing of jellies and jams. The bush fruits take up much less 
space in proportion to the amount of fruit produced than 
almost any other fruit. They are easily grown, are compact 
in habit and can be set in places too small for tree fruits. 
The currant and the gooseberry make a fitting border 
around the garden. They can be planted so as to screen 
some objectionable fence and at the same time produce an 
abundance of fresh fruit. The currant and the gooseberry 
are the hardiest of our common fruits, and they are very 
easy to protect in an unfavorable climate. They are of 
easy culture. 

Currant. — ^There are two common types of the currant, 
namely, the red and the black fruited sorts. These types 
are based upon the growth of the plant and the color of the 
fruit. 

The red currant is supposed to have its origin in northern 
Europe and in the northern part of America. The origin of 
this plant is accountable for its hardiness. This species has 
both red and white colored fruits. The red fruited varieties 
are the most popular, although the white currants are grown 
in some sections. 



PROPAGATION 197 

The black currant commonly grown in the garden has 
its origin in northern Europe. The fruit as well as the plant 
of this species has a peculiar odor which is objectionable to 
some people. The demand for the fruit of the black cur- 
rant is not as great as that of the red, but in some markets 
it is prized highly and brings a good price. 

Gooseberry. — The gooseberry is closely related to the cur- 
rant. It is very hardy and very productive. There are 
two classes of gooseberries under cultivation, namely, the 
American and the European types. The color of the culti- 
vated sorts ranges from a pale green to a deep red when 
the fruit is ripe. 

The cultivated American gooseberry has been developed 
from one of our native species. Besides the cultivated 
sorts there are several wild varieties. The fruit of the 
wild sort is used in communities where the plant is found 
growing. The greatest objection to the fruit of the wild 
plants is the large number of sharp prickles found on it. 

The cultivated European gooseberries have their origin 
in Europe. These gooseberries are not grown to any extent 
in America, because the plants are very susceptible to the 
mildew. The gooseberry, however, is a more popular fruit 
in Europe than it is in America, and many of the English 
gooseberries are very large, some specimens weighing from 
3 to 5 ounces. 

Propagation. — ^The bush fruits are propagated by hard- 
wood cuttings, by layers and by division of the plant. 
While the plants can be reproduced from seed this practice 
is never recommended, because the plants that are grown 
from seed are never true to name or to type. If a new 
variety is wanted, however, seed must be planted, but this 
is a very uncertain undertaking, especially for the amateur. 

The currant is more generally propagated by hard-wood 
cuttings. The cuttings are taken from wood of the previous 
summer's grow^th and cut into pieces about 8 inches in length. 
The cut should be smooth and just below a bud. The 
end of the new growth should be removed because it is 
usually too immature to produce good cuttings. The cut- 
tings should be made in the fall, usually during the latter part 



198 BUSH FRUITS 

of September and in October. A convenient number should 
be tied in a bunch and placed in damp sand in a cool cellar 
to callous over. The cuttings can be stored in the open 
ground if the ground in which they are stored does not freeze. 
The cuttings are not always taken in the fall. Occasionally 
they are cut in the spring and planted at once in the nursery 
row, but this practice usually does not produce as good 
plants as the stored and calloused cuttings do. 

The gooseberry is not propagated as easily from hard- 
wood cuttings as the currant. The varieties, however, 
which have small, slender wood can scarcely be propagated 
by stem cuttings. For this reason the gooseberry is usually 
propagated by layering. Layering is normally performed 
during the month of June. If the branches are covered with 
soil at this time, usually each twig will be found to be rooted 
by autumn. The rooted twigs should be taken up early in 
the spring, cut apart and planted out in the nursery row. 
After they are set in the nursery they are handled in the 
same manner as the hard-wood cuttings. 

For the home garden where several additional plants are 
wanted, the parent plant can oftentimes be taken up in the 
fall and separated into two or more parts and each piece 
set in a new location. 

Soil. — ^The currant and the gooseberry will grow in almost 
any soil. The soil should have a good depth and be supplied 
with plant food. A well-drained, sandy loam with plenty 
of humus will give excellent results. A clay loam that is 
properly handled will also grow good currants and excellent 
gooseberries. The bush fruits do their best on high lands 
and are almost worthless on low land. A northern slope is 
preferred because it is cool and the bush fruits thrive under 
cool conditions. The currants and the gooseberries do 
well when they are planted on the north side of a building 
or between the rows in an orchard, because they are par- 
tially shaded. In the crowded city and in the suburban 
garden these fruits usually do better than almost any other 
fruit, especially if the bushes are properly pruned and well 
thinned out. The gooseberries do the best on a fairly 
stiff clay while the cm*rants seem to prefer the lighter soil 



PLANTING 199 

for their best development. In certain regions where the 
soil gets very hot and dry during the summer, it is often 
advisable to mulch the ground with coarse litter or straw in 
order to keep the temperature down and to hold the moisture 
in the soil. 

The bush fruits are heavy feeders and they should be 
supplied with a large amount of plant food. The plant 
food can be furnished by either cultivating the soil or by 
mulching it heavily with good horse manure. The mulch 
in addition to adding plant food serves to keep the weeds 
down. 

Cultivation. — In the majority of fruit gardens, cultivation 
is preferable. However, in certain sections particularly in 
the middle west the bush fruits seem to thrive best without 
cultivation, and with a mulch. The tillage when practical 
should be shallow because the currant and the gooseberry 
are shallow-rooted plants. The plants when grown under a 
mulch do comparatively well without tillage, and the bush 
fruits can be grown along the borders of the garden and in 
other out-of-the-way places. However, more satisfactory 
results are usually obtained if a certain amount of tillage is 
given each year. It should be stopped soon enough so the 
plant can mature its wood before winter. Without a doubt 
some cover crop such as crimson clover would be valuable, 
especially on a commercial plantation, if cultivation is prac- 
tised. The cover crop, if it is adopted, should be planted 
about the same time as recommended for the other fruits, 
namely, the latter part of July or the first part of August. 

Planting.— The bush fruits may be planted in the fall or 
in the spring. In many sections, except the extreme north, 
fall planting is preferable. Where the weather conditions 
are favorable and the soil is well prepared there seems to 
be little difference between fall and spring planting. Good 
results have been secured with both methods where the con- 
ditions were suitable. The advocates of fall planting claim 
that since the growth of these plants starts early in the 
spring, there is more of a check to the growth of a plant if 
it is set in the spring than if it is transplanted in the fall. 
This assumption is very sound in many instances, because 



200 BUSH FRUITS 

the wood ripens up early in the autumn, therefore fall plant- 
ing is preferred by most growers. 

The distance to plant the bush fruit is determined by 
the method of cultivation. In most cases the plants are 
set 4 feet apart in the rows and the rows G feet apart. These 
distances permit of horse cultivation and during the first 
few years the plants can be cultivated in both directions. 
As the plants grow larger they are cultivated only in one 
direction. When the plants are set in the fruit garden 
and where only a few are grown, they can be planted closer 
together. The usual distance under these conditions is 
4 feet apart each way. 

The plants can be either one or two years old when they 
are set in their permanent places, but the two-year-old plants 
are usually preferred. The plants that are propagated by 
cuttings or by layers give the most satisfactory results for 
a permanent patch. 

Pruning. — The currant and the gooseberry require similar 
methods of pruning. They are much alike in their habits 
of growth and the pruning of each plant is much the same. 
Pruning should be done during the dormant period. 

When starting the young plant the first year it should 
be pruned to a single whip containing six or seven good buds. 
The second year select five or six good branches to form 
the framework of the bush. Prune any irregular branches 
back to make a uniform top. 

When the plant comes into bearing, less pruning is neces- 
sary, but a certain amount should be given regularly every 
year. The wood that is two or three years old produces the 
greatest quantity and the most superior fruit. The older 
branches produce fruit, but the quantity is less and the 
quality is inferior. The aim, then, of the pruner should be 
to remove all branches over three years of age, and to thin 
out the bush in order to admit the sunlight and to permit 
good circulation of air. Head in all those branches that 
make a long or an irregular growth. 

Harvesting. — ^The bush fruits usually give a good harvest. 
A strong, healthy currant plant should yield from three to 
six pounds of high-grade fruit, and many plants greatly 



HARVESTING 



201 




Fig. 92. — Gooseberry before pruning. (West Virginia Agricultural Bulletin 

No. 149.) 




Fig. 93. — Gooseberry after pruning. (West Virginia Agricultural Bulletin 

No. 149.) 



202 BUSH FRUITS 

exceed this yield. The currants should be picked when 
they are dry. They can hang on the vines for several weeks 
after they are ripe and improve in quality all of the time. 
They should be picked by pinching or cutting off the clusters. 
The berries should not be pulled from the bunches. 

The gooseberry usually outyields the currant. The fruit 
of the gooseberries like the currants can remain on the 
bushes after it is ripe and improve in quality. 

The greatest disadvantage to the harvesting of the goose- 
berry is the thorns. However, the thorns can largely be 
avoided if the branches are lifted up with one hand and the 
berries picked from the under side with the other hand. 
The thornless varieties ha\'e not as yet proved to be of any 
great value. 

The currants and the gooseberries are long-lived. They 
will bear fruit for many years, but it is better to set out 
new plants every eight or ten years. As the bushes get 
older the fruit becomes smaller and gets poorer in quality. 
The plants are propagated so easily and they cost so little 
that it is doubtful whether it is ever profitable to attempt 
to rejuvenate a neglected patch. The plants come into 
bearing very early and will perhaps bear fruit as soon if 
not sooner than rejuvenated plants and the quality will 
be superior. 

Varieties. ^ — There are only a few^ well-defined American 
varieties of the bush fruits but there are many European 
types. The lack of interest, until very recently, in the com- 
mercial cultivation of these fruits, probably accounts for the 
scarcity of the varieties as compared with some of our other 
fruits. In Europe the bush fruits are cultivated extensively 
and there are many good varieties. 

The most popular varieties of the red currants are the 
Cherry, Fray, Perfection, Versaillaise and the Victoria. In 
certain regions other varieties are grown, but they are not 
so widely planted. The Wilder is one of the newer varieties 
and is gaining in popularity each year. 

The white varieties of currants should be more generally 
planted, especially in the home garden. They are consid- 
ered equally good in quality and they are prolific bearers. 



DISEASES OF THE BUSH FRUITS 203 

The White Grape and the White Imperial are the most 
common varieties. 

The black European currants are not grown to any extent 
in this country. The disagreeable odor of the plant and the 
peculiar flavor of the fruit are objectionable to many people. 
This currant has some advantages and a few plants should 
be grown. The Black Naples is the most widely planted 
variety. 

The important American varieties of gooseberries are even 
less in number than the currants. The Downing, the Pearl, 
and the Houghton are perhaps the most popular of the 
American sorts. These varieties are thrifty growers, very 
productive and are comparatively free from disease. They 
are excellent for cooking and for making jelly, but they 
are not equal in quality to the English varieties for eating 
out of the hand. The English varieties have been devel- 
oped to a much greater degree than the American types. 
There are over one thousand w^ell-developed English sorts 
of which some are suited to the American gardens. Of the 
Enghsh tyipes the Columbus, Chataqua, Industry and the 
Triumph are best suited to the American garden. The 
Enghsh types are usually less vigorous and less productive 
than the native varieties. 



DISEASES OF THE BUSH FRXnTS. 

The diseases and the insects affecting the bush fruits 
are similar, and many that are found on the one plant are 
also common on the other. 

Leaf Spot.— The leaf spot is a disease that affects the 
leaves, and it is found on both the currant and the goose- 
berry. It is easily recognized because of the large well- 
defined spots, with pale centers, which are surrounded by 
a brownish border. Spraying with the standard 4-4-50 
Bordeaux mixture is effective in controlling this disease. 
The spraying should begin just as the buds are opening, and 
repeated at intervals of two weeks until four or five sprays 
have been given. 



204 BUSH FRUITS 

Anthracnose. — ^The anthracnose attacks all parts of the 
currant and the gooseberry. The anthracnose only becomes 
serious at certain times, but cases are reported where great 
damage has resulted from this trouble. The first symptom 
of this disease is the appearance of small dark brown spots 
on the leaves. These spots later change to yellow and the 
leaves fall off. Upon the canes, the stems, and the fruit, 
the disease appears as small sunken spots. Spraying with 
the standard 4-4-50 Bordeaux mixture will control this 
disease. The first spraying should be given just as the buds 
begin to swell in the spring. After the first spray succes- 
sive sprayings should be given every two weeks until four or 
five have been applied. 

Powdery Mildew. — The powdery mildew is found growing 
on both the currant and the gooseberry. This disease 
appears on all parts of the plant. The affected parts look 
as though they had been sprinkled with flour or some other 
white material. The powdery mildew, like all other mildews, 
is a superficial fungus, and upon close examination small 
white threads matted in a dense mass over the affected parts 
will be found. If the disease is allowed to progress with- 
out any restraint, the berries become deformed, irregular 
and of poor quality. They often crack open and later rot. 
The damage caused by this disease is considerable, and it 
retards the cultivation of these fruits in many sections. 
According to the work done at the Geneva Experiment 
Station the spraying with potassium sulphide at the rate of 
1 ounce to 2 gallons of water is effective in reducing the 
loss due to this disease. The spraying should begin just as 
the buds are opening and continued at intervals of two weeks 
until seven or eight sprays have been given. 

INSECTS OF THE BUSH FRUITS. 

Currant Worms. — ^The worms that are found eating the 
foliage of the currants and the gooseberries include several 
species. The native species as well as the imported worms 
are found preying upon these plants. The injury due to 
these insects is somewhat distinct for the various species, 



INSECTS OF THE BUSH FRUITS 205 

although all of them eat the leaves and cause considerable 
damage. The adults of some of the so-called currant worms 
are moths and some are flies, but in all cases it is the larvse 
of the species attacking the plant that eat the foliage. The 
habits and the life histories of the various currant worms 
differ, but in general all of them can be controlled by the 
same methods. 

If the plants are sprayed with 2 pounds of arsenate of lead 
to 50 gallons of water, these insects can be easily killed. If 
arsenate of lead is not available, i pound of Paris green to 
50 gallons of water is effective in destroying the worms. 
The spraying should begin as soon as the insects are seen. 
Usually one spraying is sufficient, although in some cases 
additional sprayings are necessary. If the insects attack the 
plants late in the season, when the fruit is reaching maturity, 
spray them with fresh hellebore or fresh pjTcthrum at the 
rate of 4 ounces to 2 gallons of water. Dusting the plants 
with the dry material diluted, 1 pound of the poison to 5 
pounds of air-slaked lime or flour, is also good. Where the 
pyrethrum or the hellebore is used, there is no danger from 
poisoning by the eating of the fruit. 

Aphis.— The aphis is known as the plant louse. It is 
frequently found on the currant, and occasionally on the 
gooseberry. It is yellowish green in color and is usually 
found on the under side of the leaves. The plant lice usually 
become abundant during the latter part of the spring, and 
they often cover the entire under surface of the leaves, 
causing them to cm'l up. The younger leaves near the tips 
of the branch are the ones which are most often attacked. 

The spraying with kerosene emulsion or with Black Leaf 
40 will control this insect. The spraying to be effective 
must be done with great care and the spray material must 
come in contact with every insect. This is often difficult, 
since the insects are in the curled leaves, and hard to reach. 
The spray must necessarily be directed upward so as to reach 
the under side of the leaves. 

Fruit Worms.— The cm-rant and the gooseberry are subject 
to attack by certain insects that bore into their fruit. Ordi- 
narily these insects are not serious, but occasionally the 



206 BUSH FRUITS 

entire crop is damaged by them. The gooseberry fruit 
worm is perhaps the most serious and is the larva of a small 
grayish moth. The female lays her eggs on the fruit and, 
after hatching, the larvae enter the fruit and feed on the pulp. 
Occasionally one worm will enter several berries and join 
all of them by a web. In the small home garden hand 
picking is perhaps as effective a remedy as can be suggested. 
This is not practical on a large scale, and some other method 
still remains to be worked out. 

SPRAYING OUTLINE FOR THE CURRANTS AND THE 
GOOSBERRIES. 

Number 

of spray. Time to spray. Spray materials. 

First Before buds swell in spring Commercial lime sulphur di- 

luted 1 gallon to 8 gallons 
of water. 

Second Just as leaves are expanding Commercial lime sulphur, 1 

gallon to 35 gallons of water 
or 4-4-50 Bordeaux plus 2 
pounds arsenate of lead to 
50 gallons of spray. 

Third When fruit is one-fourth grow^n Same as second. 

Fourth Near ripening season if worms Fresh hellebore or pyrethrum, 

are troublesome on the fruit 4 ounces to 2 gallons of 

water, or dusted on at the 
rate of 1 pound to 5 pounds 
of flour or air-slaked lime. 

If the aphis or plant louse appears, spray the plants with 
Black Leaf 40 at the rate of 1 part to 500 parts of water. 
Any wilted foliage should be cut out and destroyed because 
this usuallv indicates the borer. 



REVIEW QUESTIONS. 

1. Name the bush fruits and tell why they are so called. 

2. Differentiate between the several kinds of currants. 

3. How does the currant differ from the gooseberry? 

4. Discuss the propagation of the bush fruits. 

5. Why is it more desirable to propagate the bush fruits by cuttings 
instead of by seed? 

6. Why should the gooseberry be propagated by layering instead of by 
cuttings? 

7. What soil is preferable for the currant and the gooseberry? 



REVIEW QUESTIONS 207 

8. When is it profitable to cultivate and to mulch the bush fruits? 

9. Why is cultivation to be preferred over mulching? 

10. What are the proper distances to plant the bush fruits? 

11. What determines the distance the plants are set? 

12. Discuss the harvesting of the bush fruits. 

13. Why should the plantation be renewed every ten to twelve years? 

14. Discuss the varieties and name the most important ones. 

15. Discuss the insects and the plant diseases that attack the plants. 

16. Give the spray outline for the bush fruits. 



CHAPTER XIV. 
THE BRAMBLES. 

The brambles include the blackberry, the dewberry, the 
red raspberry, the black raspberry and the loganberry. 
The blackberry and the raspberry are the most important 
brambles, and these are found growing in many sections of 
the country. They are both commercially profitable over a 
large area. The dewberry is more limited in its growth 
than either the blackberry or the raspberry. It is grown 
in many places, however, but it does not rank very high 
as a commercial fruit. The loganberry is a new bramble. 
It has come into prominence very recently. The area over 
which it can be grown is somewhat limited. The logan- 
berry reaches its highest development in the northwestern 
part of the United States. It is a very important fruit in 
Washington and Oregon and it is shipped to many parts 
of the country from that region. 

The brambles are special favorites of most growers because 
they give quick returns. They are easily grown and the 
yields are usually large. Some one of the brambles should 
find a place in either the small suburban home garden or 
the farm garden. Where the garden is large enough, a few 
plants of each bramble should be grown. 

In many sections of the country the brambles, and espe- 
cially the blackberry, raspberry and dewberry, grow wild. 
These wild sorts are good but they are usually inferior to 
the cultivated varieties. Whenever brambles are desired 
for the garden it is always well to select those cultivated 
varieties that have proved to be profitable. It is rarely 
ever satisfactory to collect the wild sorts for the garden. 
The fully ripened fruit of the cultivated sorts is much 
superior in quality to that of the wild sorts. The habit of 
growth of the cultivated plants surpasses the wild varieties 



RASPBERRY 209 

and there is always a loss when the wild plants are grown 
in place of some of the cultivated and the named varieties. 

Blackberry and Dewberry.— The fruit of the blackberry 
and the dewberry are similar, but the growth of the plants 
is different. The dewberry is not as important as the black- 
berry. It claims admission into the garden principally 
because it ripens its fruit earlier, and this lengthens the 
blackberry season. Another advantage claimed for the dew- 
berry is that it is a trailing plant and it can be more easily 
mulched and protected in severe climates. The dewberry 
is sometimes spoken of as the trailing blackberry. 

The cultivation of the blackberry began about 1850 
and it has gradually spread to many regions since that date. 
The general culture of the blackberry has probably been 
delayed because of the many wild forms which are abundant 
in nearly every section of the country. The superiority 
of the cultivated varieties with regard to the size and the 
qualit}' of the berries has greatly increased the commercial 
plantings. As the public becomes better educated to the 
value of the cultivated varieties of blackberries the industry 
is bound to increase more rapidly. 

Raspberry. — ^There are three kinds of raspberries. This 
division is based on the color of the fruit, and we have the 
red raspberry, the black raspberry, and the yellow or light- 
colored raspberry. The red raspberry and the black rasp- 
berry^ are the t^^es which are most often grown. The 
yellow raspberry is cultivated only to a limited extent and 
more as a novelty than as a staple variety. 

The origin of the raspberry is somewhat uncertain. There 
seems to be, however, some varieties of European and some 
of American origin. 

The red raspberry group includes not only the native 
red raspberry but the European red varieties as well. This 
group also embraces an intermediate plant that bears a 
purple fruit and is frequently spoken of as purple-cane 
raspberry. The yellow-fruited laspberry is also included 
in the red group. The red raspberry has a more slender 
and a more open habit of growth than the black raspberry. 
The canes are often stiff and bear stiff prickles. The red 
14 



210 



THE BRAMBLES 




Fig. 94. — Black raspberry before pruning. (West Virginia Agricultural Bull . 

No. 149.) 




Fig. 95. — Black raspberry after pruning. (West Virginia Agricultural Bull. 

No. 149.) 



PROPAGATION 211 

raspberry is somewhat more hardy than the black rasp- 
berry and it can be grown considerably farther north. 

The black raspberry is distinct from the red raspberry 
both in its habit of growth and in its fruit. The habit 
of growth of the plant as well as the quality of the fruit 
are such that it has stained an important place as a com- 
mercial product. The black raspberry industry can be more 
profitably and more successfully pursued in regions remote 
from large commercial centers, because the fruit can be 
evaporated and sold in a dry state. The red raspberry, 
however, cannot be handled in this way and must be sold 
in a fresh-state. This limits the production of the red rasp- 
berry group to regions where large centers of population 
exist, such as around cities. 

Loganberry. — The loganberry is a h^^brid between the red 
antwerp raspberry and a native blackberry of California, 
produced by Judge J. H. Logan, of Santa Cruz, California. 
It is a plant well adapted to the northwestern States of 
Washington and Oregon as well as parts of California. It 
is not grown to any extent in other regions. The logan- 
berry is remarkable for its productiveness, hardiness and 
freedom from insects and diseases. The fruit is very large, 
often reaching IJ inches in length. It is shaped much like 
the blackberry and is of a dull crimson-red color. The 
plant is a rank, coarse grower and produces long viny canes. 
The loganberry has a flavor intermediate between that of 
the blackberry and the raspberry. It ships well if picked 
before it is too ripe. It is prized by many people for canning, 
preserving and jelly making. 

Propagation. — The brambles are propagated by suckers, 
root cuttings and tip layering. Each method of propaga- 
tion is satisfactory, but the growth of some of the different 
varieties makes one method better than some others. There 
is a great tendency for some of the brambles to throw up 
young plants from their roots. These young plants are 
called suckers. The suckers are cut from the parent plant 
with a part of the root to which it is attached and set in 
a new place. In a short time the new plant will soon make 
a fine, large specimen. When the propagating material is 



212 THE BRAMBLES 

scarce, new plants can be produced by cutting the roots 
into pieces about 3 inches long. These small pieces of 
roots are called root cuttings. Each root cutting should be 
planted 3 or 4 inches deep. The root from which the cut- 
ting is made should be from J to f of an inch in diameter. 
Certain of the brambles can be propagated by layering. 
The dewberry and some of the blackberry-dewberry hybrid 
as well as the raspberries will root readily at the tip of the 
canes. This method of propagation is called tip layering. 
Tip layering is performed by either allowing the cane to 
bend down and touch the ground naturally or to fasten it 
down by some artificial means. When the tip of the cane 
comes in contact with the soil it soon takes root and in a 
short time a new plant is developed. 

Soil. — The brambles thrive on nearly any type of soil 
provided suitable moisture conditions prevail. A sandy or 
clay loam is perhaps the most preferable when it can be 
secured. The brambles yield the largest returns when they 
are grown upon a moderately deep, rich soil with plenty of 
available plant food. 

The soil for the brambles should be well prepared the 
season previous to the setting of the plants. Some culti- 
vated crop, such as potatoes, beans or cow peas, should be 
planted on the soil the previous year, so that the ground 
will be well cultivated. This procedure will ensure the 
thorough rotting of any sod or organic matter and will help 
to destroy any cut worms or other injurious insects which 
often cause great damage to the young plants. The soil 
should be plowed to a depth of 8 to 10 inches when the 
brambles are planted. After plowing the ground it should 
be thoroughly harrowed and worked down until the soil of 
the plant bed is fine and uniform. The subsoil should be 
such as to give ample drainage. The brambles cannot 
thrive with their roots growing in a cold, damp subsoil. 

Fertilizer. — The brambles respond differently to the use of 
fertilizers. Barnyard manure applied in limited quantities 
is perhaps the best fertilizer for the brambles in general. 
The manure not only adds plant food and humus but it 
also improves the physical condition of the soil. 



PLANTING 213 

According to some work done at the New Jersey x\gricul- 
tnral Experiment Station, the harynard manure is not as 
profitable as the complete commercial fertilizer for the 
red raspberries. There might be considerable variation in 
different sections in regard to the value of commercial 
fertilizers. In all probability a combination of both the 
barnyard manure and a complete commercial fertilizer will 
give more uniform results over a greater range of territory. 
For the home garden the barnyard manure should be used, 
especially by the amateur. Occasionally there is some 
danger attending the use of the commercial fertilizer and 
unless the grower is thoroughly familiar with the handling 
of the product some damage might result to the plants. 

Planting. — The brambles are usually planted in the spring. 
A larger number of the plants will grow if the^^ are set as 
early as the land can be properly prepared. When early 
spring planting is impossible the plants can be set in the 
fall especially in those regions where there is no danger from 
drying winds during the winter. 

The plants should be set a little deeper than they for- 
merly stood in the nursery row. If the crowns project 
above the ground the canes are easily broken off. The top 
should be cut back to 6 or 8 inches in length as soon as the 
planting is finished. 

The distance to plant the brambles depends upon the 
purpose of the crop. If the soil is fertile and the crop is for 
commercial purposes they must be set farther apart than if 
the plants are grown in the garden for home consumption. 

The brambles are usually set 3 feet apart in the rows, and 
the rows 6 to 8 feet apart for commercial planting in the 
Eastern States. In other regions where the plants grow 
very large, as they frequently do on the Pacific coast, they 
should be set 4 or 5 feet apart in the rows and the rows not 
any closer than 8 feet. In the home garden where only a 
few plants of each bramble are grown, and where hand labor 
and greater attention is given to them, the plants can be 
set closer together. Under such conditions the rows should 
never be less than 4 feet apart nor the plants less than 
2 feet apart in the rows. The character of the soil and the 



214 



THE BRAMBLES 



space available will determine the 
especially in the home garden. 



distance in most cases 



Systems of Training. The systems of training \'ary with 
the conditions in the different sections of the country. In 
some regions the canes are topped, that is, the tips of the 



Fig 




A common form of trellis for canes of the upright types of brambles. 



branches are pinched off with the fingers when they have 
reached a height of 2 J or 3 feet. All canes do not reach 
the desired height at the same time, and the patch must be 
pruned several times. The pinching off of the tip causes 
the canes to branch and they are better able to stand erect 




Fig. 97. — ^A form of trellis for canes of the trailing types of brambles. 

under heavy crops of berries. In some cases when pinch- 
ing off is practised the canes will stand erect without sup- 
ports. If supports are needed wires can be stretched along 
rows of posts close to the brambles. A trellis of this kind 
is made by setting posts at intervals of from 15 to 25 feet. 



PRUNING 215 

A wire is stretched along the posts about 2^ feet abo\'e the 
ground and the canes are tied to the wire. A modification 
of this trelUs is made by naiUng a cross-piece, 18 inches 
long, to the post near the top. Two wires are then stretched 
along the posts and fastened to the cross-bars. The brambles 
are now allowed to grow between the wires, which forms a 
support on either side of them. 

Brambles of the upright growing type, as some of the black- 
berries, are supported by tying the canes to a trellis made 
by stretching two or three wires along several posts set at 
intervals of from 15 to 20 feet. The trailing types of bram- 
bles are sometimes allowed to run along the wires of the 
trellis similar to that of the grapevine. Either two or three 
w^ires can be fastened to the posts. The number of wires is 
determined by the type of the bramble. If the brambles 
are planted in hills, which is occasionally done, posts can 
be set at each plant and the canes fastened to the post. 

Pruning. — ^The blackberries and the raspberries are suffi- 
ciently alike to make the pruning of each practically the same. 

Both the blackberry and the raspberry have a great 
tendency to sucker. These suckers not only grow about 
the parent plant but also between the row^s. A certain 
percentage of all these suckers should be removed as soon 
as they appear, and especially those which grow between 
the rows. 

As soon as the berries are picked, the old canes which 
have just borne the fruit, should be cut off close to the 
ground and burned. This practice allows the young canes 
more room in which to develop and at the same time destroys 
any diseases or insects that are present. 

In some sections the plants are topped, that is, the tip 
of the canes are pinched off with the fingers when the canes 
have reached a height of 2 J or 3 feet. This pinching back 
of the canes causes them to branch and they are better able 
to support their fruit without breaking over. 

The canes should be thinned out in the row, so that 
only four or five are grown in one clump. This practice 
is conducive to good healthy plants and also produces the 
best quality of fruit. 



216 THE BRAMBLES 

Winter Protection. — TJie brambles require some winter 
l)rotccti()n in tlie iiortlieni and central western States which 
are subject to cold drying winds. Although some of the 
brambles, particularly the blackberries, can withstand very 
cold weather, some protection is usually advisable. The 
plants are first taken from their trellis or support and laid 
on the ground. It is then a relatively easy matter to cover 
up the canes with soil. If the soil is not sufficient to thor- 
oughly protect the plants, hay, straw or coarse manure can 
be added later in the winter. As soon as the cold weather 
is over the materials are removed and the plants fastened 
to the supports. The strawy material which has been 
removed w^ill form a mulch for the ground during the growing 
season and in this way will serve two purposes. A mulch 
is of great value in retarding the evaporation of water from 
the soil. It also has the advantage of keeping the weed 
down and, to a limited extent, of preventing a rank growth 
of suckers. Where the plants are mulched the material 
should not be removed from the canes until all danger of 
severe weather is past. 

Harvesting. — The fruit of the brambles is usually hand- 
pipked. This method of harvesting is necessary because 
of the soft nature of the fruit. The keeping qualities of 
the fruit of any variety depends largely upon the care 
exercised in the picking and the handling. If the berries are 
bruised or injured in any way the fruit is quickly destroyed 
by moulds. 

The time for picking the fruit depends upon the season of 
maturity and the variety. Some varieties may be picked 
soon after the berries turn black, while others color up 
before they are ripe. The berries should not be picked 
until they become sweet, but should still be firm enough to 
market well. 

The fruit of the brambles is marketed in either pint or quart 
boxes, like that of the strawberry. Perhaps the shallow 
pint boxes are preferable to the quarts because the weight 
of the berries is sometimes sufficient to mash the lower 
ones. The boxes are packed in crates which vary in size 
from 16 to 24 boxes to the crate. 



DISEASES OF THE BRAMBLES 217 

Tlie fruit should he kept in a shady place in the field, and 
taken to the refrigerator as soon as possible after it is picked. 

Varieties.— The brambles ^'ary so in their ability to with- 
stand cold that they are usually divided into three groups, 
the hardy, tlie half-hardy and the tender sorts. The hardy 
varieties should be selected for planting in the northern 
regions where severe weather pre^^ails. In such districts the 
plants should be mulched to prevent them from winter killing. 
The half-hardy varieties grow and succeed in the middle 
states or in a region farther south than where the northern 
varieties are grown. The tender varieties have originated 
for the most part in the southwest, and are peculiarly adapted 
to the semi-arid conditions that prevail in those sections. 
These varieties are somewhat drought resistant and mature 
their fruits before the season becomes too warm. 

The Pacific coast region grows a large number of varie- 
ties. Some of these are common in the east and some are 
adapted to other sections of the United States. There are 
many brambles grown in the Pacific coast region that are 
not adapted to any other section of the country. This is 
possible because of the wdde variation in the climate as well 
as in the rainfall. 

There can be no authentic list of varieties that will succeed 
in all regions. The grower must first decide whether his 
local conditions will permit the growing of the tender, half- 
hardy or hardy types. It is not profitable to select varieties 
which are not perfectly hardy. An inquiry among the grow- 
ers in his immediate vicinity as to the best variety to select 
is recommended. The grower should as far as possible 
select those varieties w^hich are best suited to his particular 
section. 

DISEASES OF THE BRAMBLES. 

There are several diseases and insects found on both the 
blackberry and the raspberry-. However, by the use of 
the proper preventives these troubles can be held in check 
and good yields obtained. 

Leaf Spot.- — The leaf spot is a disease found upon the leaves 
of the blackberry and the raspberry. The disease appears 



218 THE BRAMBLES 

as small spots on the lea^^es. The central region of the 
spots is white while the border is of a reddish color. This 
disease is exceedingly common and widespread. No treat- 
ment has yet been demonstrated to be of sufficient value to 
be recommended. It is not often very serious. 

Anthracnose. — The anthracnose is a very serious disease 
of both the blackberry and the raspberry. It has caused 
great loss in several states. The disease attacks chiefly 
the young canes, but is also found upon the leaves. The 
disease appears as small purplish spots which later become 
grayish white in the centers. As the spots increase in size, 
they coalesce, making irregular blotches varying from | to 
I inch in length. The affected leaves refuse to grow and 
finally dry up and fall off. The anthracnose is not very 
destructive if rotation of crops is practised. In addition to 
rotation, the infected canes should be cut out and burned. 
Spraying with standard 4-4-50 Bordeaux mixture will aid 
in preventing the spread of the disease. 

Cane Blight. — ^The cane blight is sometimes very injurious 
in certain regions. The injury occurs to the fruiting canes, 
the foliage of which wilts and dies. This disease often 
enters the canes through slits made in pruning. The disease 
is largely distributed through nursery stock and by work- 
men. The cane blight should be prevented as much as 
possible by planting only healthy plants and all diseased 
canes should be immediately burned. It is never advisable 
to replant on ground that has been previously infected. 

INSECTS OF THE BRAMBLES. 

Raspberry-cane Borer. — ^The raspberry-cane borer some- 
times becomes troublesome. The adult insect is a beetle 
about J inch in length. It has a slender body which is black 
in color except the prothorax, which is yellow. Occasion- 
ally two or three black spots are found on the wings. The 
beetles appear in the early summer and the females girdle 
the young tip in two places, causing it to wither and die. 
Between the two girdled portions the female deposits her 
eggs, which soon hatch and the larvae burrow downw^ard. 



SPRAYING OUTLINE FOR THE BRAMBLES 219 

By fall they have reachecl the root, where they remain over 
winter. This insect is held in control by cutting oil" the 
tip of the canes below the girdled point and burning them. 
Spraying is not effecti^'e against this kind of insect. 

SPRAYING OUTLINE FOR THE BRAMBLES. 

When the new^ canes are 8 to 10 inches high begin spray- 
ing with 4-4-50 Bordeaux mixture and repeat at intervals 
of every two or three weeks throughout the growing season. 
If worms or slugs appear and destroy the foliage by eating it, 
add 2 pounds of arsenate of lead to 50 gallons of spray. 
After the fruiting season has passed, thoroughly inspect the 
canes, cut out and burn all those which are irregular in 
growth, w^eak or infected with galls, tree cricket eggs or 
stem borers. 

REVIEW QUESTIONS. 

1. Name the plants that are included under the brambles, 

2. Tell the difference between the blackberry and the dewberry. 

3. What is the origin of the raspberry? How is the raspberry group 
divided? 

4. What is the difference between the red raspberry and the black 
raspberry? 

•5. Why is the black raspberry grown over a greater area than the red 
raspberry? 

6. Give the origin of the loganberry? Where is its native home? 

7. Discuss the three ways in which the brambles are propagated. 

8. Which method of propagation is most commonly employed? 

9. Discuss the preparation of the soil for the brambles. 

10. What advantage has barnyard manure over commercial fertilizer? 

11. What is the most desirable way to fertilize the brambles in the home 
garden? Why? 

12. Discuss the planting of the brambles. 

13. What determines the distance the plants are set? 

14. Why are the brambles set closer together in the home garden than in 
the commercial plantation? 

15. Discuss the several ways of training the brambles. 

16. Discuss a good way to protect brambles during cold weather. 

17. Why is it necessary to give the brambles winter protection? 

18. What is the determining factor in selecting a variety of one of the 
brambles? 

19. Name and describe the important diseases and insects. 

20. Give the spray outline for the brambles. 



CHAPTER XV. 
THE GRAPE. 

America has about twenty species of native wild grapes. 
A few of this number have been fully tested under cultivation. 
There is practically no part of North America without some 
native species. In many sections these wild species are 
important fruits and are the parents of our commercial 
varieties. 

The two great classes of grapes grown in this country 
are the American species or the labrusca grapes, of which 
the Concord, the Delaware and the Niagara .are common 
examples, and the European or vinifera varieties, such as the 
Malaga, Tokay and Thompson Seedless, which are confined 
to the warmer Pacific coast region. The grapes grown east 
of the Rocky Mountains are practically all improved native 
species, but west of the mountains along the Pacific coast the 
European species are the grapes which are largely grown. 

The grape is of very easy culture and brings almost certain 
reward for the care and the attention which is given to it. 

Propagation. — ^The grape is propagated by seed, hard-wood 
cuttings, layering and in some regions by grafting. Grafting 
is most often done in California, where the European varieties 
are worked on the American roots, in order to avoid the loss 
due to an insect known as the phylloxera. 

The grapes propagated by seed are used either as stocks on 
which to graft known sorts or to obtain new varieties. The 
seed should be sown, as soon as it is gathered, in rich soil, 
to a depth of J inch, and protected by a mulch during 
the winter. Where the seed is grown in a haphazard w^ay 
there is very little chance of ever producing fruit of any value. 
The intelligent hybridizing or the crossing of two staple 
varieties of known worth is a much better way of securing 
new varieties of value. 



PROPAGATION 



221 



The propagation by hard-wood cuttings is the most prac- 
tical and the most widely used method. The hard-wood 
cuttings of the grape are made in several ways, namely, as 
one-eye, two-eye, three-eye, heel and mallet cuttings. The 
two- and the three-eye cuttings are most often employed. 




Fig. 98. — Two- and three-eye rooted cuttings of the grape. 

The one-eye cutting is only used when the cutting wood is 
scarce and aMarge number of cuttings are made. The heel 
and the mallet'cuttings are only used in special cases. A few 
varieties will grow better when a small piece of the parent 
branch is attached, as in the heel and the mallet cutting. 



222 



THE GRAPE 



The length of tlie straight stem hard- wood cutting varies 
according to the variety and the amount of a\'ailable cutting 
wood. When it is possible the cutting should be about 
8 inches long. Shorter cuttings should only be used when 
absolutely necessary. 

The cuttings should be handled as described in the chapter 
on the Propagation of Plants. 




Fig. 99. — Rooted heel cuttings of tlie grape. 

The grapes of all varieties are easily propagated by layering. 
This method of propagation is neither adapted to the rapid 
multiplication of the plant nor is it very well suited to the 
commercial propagation of the grape. It^is, however, an 
excellent means for increasing the grape for^home use where 
only a few well-developed and strong plantsjare needed. 



SOIL 223 

There are several methods of layering commonly employed : 
The serpentine and the trench layer are perhaps the most 
practical. Layering is especially valuable for the amateur, 
because very little knowledge of the growth of a plant is 
necessary to have good success with layering. The essential 
step in layering is to break or twist the cane at several points 
and then cover it up with soil to a depth of several inches. 
If serpentine layering is the method selected the cane is 
covered at several places, leaving a corresponding space not 
covered. Several plants will grow from this parent cane and 
the young plants can be removed when they have a well- 
developed root system. 

Soil. — The grape does the best if grown on a good sandy 
loam. A clay loam is also satisfactory in many cases if it is 
well drained. The soil should be fertile but not excessively 
rich. It should be loose and easily worked. The presence 
of lime in a soil seems to be beneficial. 

The subsoil should be open and somewhat loose in texture. 
The character of the subsoil is important. The roots are 
easily injured by excessive heat and draught as well as by 
standing water, and if the texture of the subsoil is such that 
the roots cannot penetrate it the vine will usually suffer. 
This is particularly true if the subsoil is comparatively close 
to the surface. 

The soils underlaid with a hard pan or those which are 
inclined to wash badly, as well as poorly drained ones, 
should always be avoided when selecting a location for the 
grape. 

The soil should be thoroughly prepared by plowing and 
harrowing it before planting the grape. Where conditions 
warrant it the soil will be greatly improved by incorporating 
well-rotted manure with it before planting the vines. 

The soil with reference to the general location is impor- 
tant. The situation for the grape should be one which is 
protected from cold winds. A warm sunny exposure with a 
free circulation of air is very desirable. A southern slope 
generally offers the best location. Other slopes and level 
land are used extensively for growing the grape, but the fruit 
is usually a little longer in ripening. Excellent fruit is often 



224 THE GRAPE 

grown on northern slopes if they have the modifying influ- 
ences of some large body of water. 

Planting. — The most economical way of planting the grape 
is to fm-row out the land one way and mark it the other. The 
vines are then set at the intersection of the furrow and the 
mark. For home planting a hole large enough to receive the 
roots without crowding them can be made with the ordinary 
spade or any other digging implement. 

When planting the vines it is always well to select a cloudy 
day and to have the soil in a damp condition but not wet. 
The vines suffer less from exposure when they are planted 
under these conditions. The tops of the vines should be cut 
off so that only three or four buds remain before they are 
planted. The roots should be cut back to a uniform length, 
say about 10 to 12 inches. On light soils it is very unportant 
to have the plants set deep, and on such soils 12 to 15 inches 
is not too deep. The fertile top soil should be worked about 
the roots, but the plants should not be covered more than 2 
or 3 inches deeper than they stood in the nursery row at the 
time of planting. Gradually add the remainder of the soil 
until the plants are at the required depth. 

It is not advisable to plant deep on heavy soils and 6 to 8 
inches is about the right depth. 

The distance apart the plants should be set depends some- 
what upon the vigor of the plant and the variety which is 
selected. The method of training and pruning as well as the 
soil also regulates the distance. The strong growing varieties 
are sometimes set 10 feet apart each way, but occasionally 
some growers will set the plants 7 to 8 feet in the rows and the 
rows 8 to 10 feet apart. The stronger growing varieties, like 
the Niagara and the Concord, will have to be set at a greater 
distance than a weaker growing variety like the Delaware. 

Only strong one-year-old vines produced from la^^ers or 
from cuttings should be planted. Two-year-old vines often- 
times do not grow well, while older vines are of very little 
value. 

It is more economical and in every way more profitable to 
pay a good price for the best vines than to use inferior ones 
which cost nothing. 



PRUNING 225 

The vines of each variety should be planted together and 
as soon as the planting is completed a record should be made 
which will show the location of all the vines of each variety. 

Cultivation.— The cultivation of the grape should begin 
soon after the vines are planted. The tillage should be 
shallow enough so as not to strike the roots. The vineyards 
should be kept free from weeds. During the first two years 
some hoed crop can be grown between the rows which will be 
a benefit to the plants by shading them. After a year or two 
the vines will need all of the room. The narrow strips left 
along the rows should be cleaned out with the hoe. A one- 
horse cultivator will usually be the most economical for 
cultivating between the rows. 

The cultivation should stop when the fruit begins to weigh 
down the vines. As soon as the crop has been harvested, the 
cultivator should be run down the middle of the rows and the 
ground sown to some cover crop. Crimson clover or cow 
peas seem to serve this purpose well, although rye, buck- 
wheat and hairy vetch are sometimes used. 

Pruning. — ^The pruning and the training of the grape to a 
definite system usually go together. It is necessary to follow 
a uniform method of pruning in order to train the vine to a 
certain system. It' requires judgment as well as knowledge 
of the vine. When the vines are in a vigorous condition the 
pruning and the training becomes almost optional with the 
grower, although there is no doubt that certain varieties of 
grapes do the best when trained to a certain system. 

In pruning the grape the relationship of the wood to 
fruit bearing should be thoroughly understood. The pruner 
must keep in mind that the fruit of any year is borne near the 
base of shoots of the same year, which spring either from the 
canes of the preceding year or from older wood. 

Since each shoot bears from two to three clusters of fruit, 
only two or three buds should be left on the cane of the 
previous year's growth. Usually two or more canes are 
selected on one or two of the main stems. Good pruning, 
then, means removing all wood except canes sufficient to 
furnish the shoots necessary for the desired number of clusters. 

The time for the pruning of the grapes varies somewhat 
15 



220 



THE GRAPE 



witli the growers and the localities, but it usually extends 
from the dropping of the leaves in the fall to a time just 
before the swelling of the buds in the spring. 

Systems of Training. — ^l^he training and the pruning of the 
grape are closely allied. In discussing training it is necessary 
to use certain terms characteristic of the grape and a brief 
definition of these terms should logically find a place here. 
The terms commonly used are (1) shoot, which is a green or 
immature growth less than one year old; (2) cane, which is a 
matured shoot; (3) arm, which is an old cane three or more 
years old; (4) branch, which is a division of an arm; (5) stem-, 
which is the part that supports the entire vine. 




Fig. 100. — Single-stem Kniffen system of training the grape. 

In the training of a vine a support is necessary. This 
support is called an arbor or a trellis. The best trellis is one 
that permits the vine to grow without crowding and also 
holds it in such a position so that all parts can be easily 
reached when spraying and gathering the fruit. The trellis 
should not be too expensive. There are many different 
styles of support and each has its advantages as well as its 
disadvantages. The support adopted will depend upon the 
variety of grape which is grown and also whether it is for 
commercial or home planting. 

Stakes. — ^The cheapest and the most simple method of 
training the grape is by setting a stake at each vine and 
tying it to the stake. This method affords an opportunity 
for cultivating the soil in both directions and is preferred by 



SYSTEMS OF TRAINING 227 

some growers. The weaker growing varieties are usually 
trained by this method. The stakes should be 2 or 3 inches 
square or 2 or 3 inches in diameter and at least 5 or 6 feet in 
length. The most durable wood should be used. Occasion- 
ally when the vines are trained to stakes it is necessary to 
use two of them for the stronger growing varieties. 

Trellises.— A good trellis can be made by the use of several 
good posts and some wire. The posts should be of the most 
durable wood and about 7 or 8 feet in length; 2 or 3 feet 
of the post should be set in the ground, leaving the trellis 
about 5 feet in height. The posts at the ends of the rows 
should be heavier than those in the center, because the 
greatest strain comes on the end posts. The posts should 
alternate between the vines and not set directly in front of 
any one. They should be set twice the distance between the 
vines. After the posts are set, galvanized iron wire should 
be stretched along the row and the wire should be securely 
fastened to each post w^ith a staple. Galvanized iron wire no 
smaller than No. 12 should be used. Three wires are usually 
much better than two. The lower wire should be about 15 
to 20 inches above the ground. The other wires should be 
spaced about 12 to 14 inches apart. 

When the wires are fastened to the side of the posts it is 
called a vertical trellis. Several methods of training the 
grape may be used on the vertical trellis. The two most 
common systems are the horizontal arm and the fan system. 
When the fan system is adopted it is much the same as that 
practised when the vines are trained on stakes. This method 
is virtually a renewal system because the vine is practically 
renewed each year. Two or three shoots are grown near the 
ground each year, and these are tied to wires, the ends being 
cut off when the young canes are 4 or 5 feet long. 
_ The canes are then trained to the wires in a fan shape. The 
side canes on the branches are shortened to spurs of two or 
three buds. Only three or four of the side canes should be 
allowed to grow on the branches. All of the other canes 
should be removed. 

The arm system of training consists in allowing a single 
stem to grow to the desired height. The end of the stem is 



228 



THE GRAFE 



then cut off and the two upper canes are trained hori- 
zontally along one of the wires and forms the arms. All 
other canes should be removed so soon as they start growth. 
There are two ways of fastening the arms to the supports : 
Some growers prefer to cut the stem short and train the arm 
to the first wire. The future branches can then grow up and 
be fastened to the upper wires. Some other growers prefer 
to have the stem long so it will reach the top wire and the 
future branches will hang down. Either system can be 
used according to the choice of the grower. 




Fig. 101. — Upright renewal system of training the grape. 

Tlie Overhead System. — The overhead system is only 
adapted for small areas of grapes around the home. It is 
nothing more than the common grape arbor. In many 
sections it is fast disappearing and is being replaced by the 
other methods of training. However, there are certain places 
where the grape can be satisfactorily trained by this method. 
The overhead system is supported by a trellis made by 
placing posts in the ground 8 to 10 feet apart. The posts are 
usually 8 or 9 feet long and set in the ground 2 or 3 feet. The 
posts are set in two rows and each post opposite the other. 
A 2 X 4 is then nailed across the top of two posts. When this 
frame is completed strips 1x2 inches are nailed along the 
sides and over the top of the frame. These strips should 
be at least 2 feet apart. 

Harvesting and Packing. — The grape should not be picked 
until it is fully ripe for use in the home or for making wine. 



VARIETIES 229 

There are many varieties which become highly colored some 
time before they are fully matured, but they are not ripe. 
If the grape is picked as soon as it colors up the fruit will be 
sour and inferior in quality. When the grape is ripe and in 
the best condition to pick the stem will begin to shrivel 
slightly or will soften a little so that it can be easily bent. 

The grape should never be gathered when the vines are 
wet with dew or rain. The stems should always be cut and 
the bunch should never be pulled or broken off. The bunches 
should be laid either in shallow trays or in baskets when they 
are carried to the packing house. The packing of grapes will 
be made much easier if the grapes are allowed to lie for a 
couple of hours until the stems become slightly wilted. The 
bunches should be placed in the baskets with their stems 
down. Each bunch should be packed firmly in the carrier 
or the fruit will move about and be greatly injured before it 
reaches the market. 

A package should never contain more than one variety of 
grapes. Neither should mixed nor inferior fruit be included 
in any pack, because it reduces the value of the good fruit. 

The grape ripens during the latter part of the summer 
when it is still warm. Therefore grapes cannot be kept for 
any length of time unless they are immediately placed in 
cold storage. Even under the best conditions the grape 
can only be held for a limited time. It is usually better to 
dispose of the crop when it is harvested than it is to attempt 
to hold it. 

Varieties. — ^The selection of varieties is a most difficult 
undertaking. Their behavior and requirements are varied 
according to the soil and the climate, so that it would be folly 
to offer a list for any given section. There are, however, 
several varieties that do well over a considerably large area 
and might be listed for the aid of some. The Concord, 
Worden and the Moore, which are dark grapes, and the 
Niagara, which is a white grape, succeed in many parts of 
the North. 

The Delaware is perhaps the finest quality grape, but it 
must be given special care, and some skill is necessary in 
growing it. It usually takes an experienced grower to sue- 



230 THE GRAPE 

ceed with this \ariety, although the amateur sometimes has 
good success with it. 

The Catawba is one of the oldest and the best known of 
our native varieties. It is a late grape and does not succeed 
over so great a range of territory- as the other varieties 
enumerated. A few other varieties worth mentioning are 
the Brighton, Diamond and Woodruff. 

DISEASES OF THE GRAPE. 

The grape is subject to several diseases and insects. In 
some sections these maladies become so troublesome that 
grapes are not often grown. Luckily, if proper spraying is 
done many of these troubles can be controlled. 

Black Rot. — The black rot is probably the most serious 
trouble to the grape-growdng industry. This disease is of 
American origin and well distributed over the grape-growing 
regions of the United States. The black rot not only attacks 
the fruit, but it is found on the leaves, stems and young canes. 
The berries are the most seriously affected, although the dis- 
ease, as a rule, first appears on the leaves as circular, sharply 
defined, brown spots. The berries are usually attacked w^hen 
they are about one-third grown. The disease appears as 
small purplish-brow^n spots on the fruit w^hich gradually spread 
over the whole surface of the berry. The affected fruit 
becomes dark in color in a short time and later shrinks up, 
but in most cases hangs on the stem for some time after it 
is attacked. The berries rarely ever shell oflF. 

The general experience of growlers w^ith the common varie- 
ties of the dark colored grapes would indicate that all of 
them are susceptible to this disease. Some of the light 
colored varieties seem to be practically immune. There is, 
however, a great difference in resistance of the different 
varieties, which is probably determined by their environ- 
mental condition. The Scuppernong variety seems to be the 
least affected by this disease and is considered practically 
immune. 

Clean culture and thorough spraying will control this 
disease to a large degree. The 4-4-50 Bordeaux mixture is 



DISEASES OF THE GRAPE 



231 



the most effective, and the first appHcation should be given 
about the time the young shoots are a foot long. The spray 
ing should be continued throughout the summer at intervals 
of two or three weeks until five or six sprayings have been 
given. The number of sprayings that will be required will 




Fig. 102.— Black rot of the Niagara grape. (After Reddick, Cornell Bulletin 

No. 293.) 



depend largely upon the weather conditions. In regions 
where the rain fall is abundant more spraying will be 
necessary. 

Powdery Mildew. — ^The powdery mildew is also a native 
of the United States. It is widely disseminated and now 



232 THE GRAPE 

covers all of Europe. It is also known in every part of the 
I'nited States. This disease attacks all parts of the plant, 
first appearing as white circular spots upon both the upper 
and the lower surfaces of the young leaves. These spots 
gradually' enlarge and may finally cover the entire surface 
of the leaf. The affected leaves are retarded in growth and 
the blossoms which are attacked fail to set fruit. The 
affected fruit ceases to grow and either falls off or fails to 
ripen. 

The powdery mildew is strictl}^ superficial and it is easily 
rubbed off of the affected parts with the hand. Damp, rainy 
weather favors its development, while dry windy weather 
has a tendency to check it. The American varieties of grapes 
are less susceptible to the powdery mildew than the European 
sorts. 

There are tw^o methods of controlling the mildew, namely, 
dusting and spraying. In regions where the wind is light, the 
dusting with flowers of sulphur on every part of the plant is 
effective. Several applications of sulphur should be given. 
The first application should be applied at the time the 
blossoms begin to open. If signs of the mildew are observed 
later, additional applications should be made at once. 
Spraying with a 4-4-50 Bordeaux mixture is effective. If 
the vines have been sprayed for the black rot this spray will 
be effective in controlling the mildew. 

Downy Mildew. — The downy mildew somewhat resembles 
the powdery mildew. It is widely distributed on both the 
cultivated and the wild species of grapes. All parts of the 
plant are affected, namely, the young shoots, the leaves and 
the fruit. The inquiry is somewhat similar to that of the 
powdery mildew. The same methods of control as recom- 
mended for the powdery mildew are effective in controlling 
the downy mildew, but perhaps Bordeaux mixture should 
be given the preference. 

INSECTS OF THE GRAPE. 

Grape Phylloxera. — The grape phylloxera is an insect native 
to the United States, and at times has severely threatened 



INSECTS OF THE GRAPE 233 

the grape industry in the Pacific coast regions. This insect 
is a small plant louse, and its life history is very complicated, 
involving four different forms of aphids. The four forms 
may be briefly enumerated as (1) the root form, (2) the leaf 
gall form, (3) the winged form and (4) the sexual form. The 
root form is the most destructive, and the gall form is also 
very injurious. 

The principal means of control lies in the selection of resist- 
ant vines. Since the most destructive form of this insect is 
found on the roots, which are protected in such a way that no 
spray can be used, it becomes necessary to employ some other 
means of control. Carbon bisulphide, which is a volatile 
liquid, heavier than air, has been extensively used. This 
material is the most effective on light soils but does not lend 
itself to very successful use on heavy clay soils. It is also 
relatively expensive. Carbon bisulphide may be applied at 
any time other than during the blooming and the ripening 
season. Two applications usually give the best results. To 
apply the material pom* one-half of an ounce into a hole 
about 1 foot in depth and not closer than 1 foot from the vine. 

If water is available for irrigation it offers one of the best 
means of control for this insect, which is done by flooding 
the ground to a depth of about 6 inches and allowing the 
water to remain on the soil for about ten days. The best 
results are obtained by applying the water as soon as the 
vines cease active growth in the fall. 

Flea Beetle. — ^The flea beetle is a little insect which often 
becomes serious on the grape. It is a bluish-green beetle, and 
the chief damage it does is to eat the buds about the time they 
begin to swell in the spring. If the beetles are very abundant 
they often destroy all of the buds, which greatly retard the 
leafing out and in severe cases of infestation sometimes kill 
the vine. The larvae of the insect hatch from the eggs about 
the time the leaves are expanding and at once attack them, 
eating out irregular holes. 

Where systematic spraying with arsenate of lead is prac- 
tised very little damage results from the flea beetle. 

Grape Leaf Hopper. — ^The leaf hopper is often very injurious 
in many sections where grapes are grown. These insects 



234 THE GRAPE 

feed upon the under side of the leaves, and they often become 
very abundant. Their injury causes small white spots to 
appear on the leaves. These spots are made by the insect 
sucking out the chlorophyll from the plant. As the amount 
of injury increases, the leaves turn yellow and the fruit is 
reduced in size and in quality. The adult insect is about 
I inch in length. The wings are marked with red and 
yellow. The nymphes are a light yellowish green in color. 
They feed in the same way as the adults. The insects come 
in the early spring and feed on whatever foliage is available 
until the grape leaves appear. 

Various devices and methods of control are in vogue. 
Owing to the jumping habit of the insect several patent 
arrangements have been introduced. The use of sticky fly 
paper is also effective. A device made by stretching cloth 
on wooden frames against which the hoppers strike is some- 
times used. The cloth is painted with a sticky material 
made by mixing 1 quart of melted resin with 1 pint of castor 
oil, and as the insects strike the cloth covered with this 
material they stick fast and are killed. Spraying the vines 
with 1 pound of whale oil soap to 10 gallons of water is also 
used. A 10 per cent, kerosene emulsion is effective and often 
employed. Several applications of an insecticide are usually 
necessary. If the vineyard is thoroughly cleaned up every 
year many of the hibernating insects are killed and therefore 
less damage results. 

Grape Berry Moth. — ^The grape berry moth is a small moth 
with a wing expanse of about | inch. Wormy grapes are 
largely due to the larvse of this moth. The injury done 
by the first and the second brood is somewhat different. 
The first generation larvse web the cluster of grapes together 
either before the blossoms open or soon after the grapes set. 
The later brood, however, bores into the green fruit, causing 
purplish spots to mark the entrance of the insect. It is 
obvious that if the first brood is large greater damage will 
be done, since each worm practically destroys a bunch of 
grapes, while the later brood destroys only the berry. 

Spraying with arsenate of lead at the rate of 2 pounds to 
50 gallons of water is effective in destroying this insect. 



REVIEW QUESTIONS 235 

Where the vines are sprayed with Bordeaux mixture the lead 
can be added to it and both sprayed on at the same time. 

A Uttle soap sticker added to the sohition will cause it to 
adhere better to the berries. The first spraying^ should be 
given just before the blossoms open, the second just as the 
grapes finish blooming and the third during the early part 
of July. Picking and destroying all of the infested berries 
will aid materially in combating this insect. 

Grape Curculio. — The injury of the grape curculio closely 
resembles that of the grape berry moth. The grape curculio 
also causes wormy grapes, but the damage is somewhat 
different from that of grape berry moth. The adults are small 
weevils w^hich pass the winter in or near the vineyards. 
They usually hibernate under trash or rubbish, and appear 
in the spring about the time the grapes bloom. The insects 
feed on the foliage until the grapes are about one-fourth 
grown. The adult then cuts a very characteristic credent- 
shaped hole in the grape, under the flap of which the egg is 
laid. The larvse soon hatch and bore into the pulp, w^here it 
feeds until it reaches maturity. 

Spraying the vines with arsenate of lead at the rate of 2 
pounds to 50 gallons of water while the grapes are small will 
kill many of the adults. If this procedure is followed out 
very little damage will result from this insect. 

SPRAYING OUTLINE FOR THE GRAPE. 



No. of 
spray. 


Time of spray. 


Spray materials. 


First 


When shoots are 8 to 10 inches 


4-4-50 Bordeaux. 


Second 


long 
Just before blooming 


4-4-50 Bordeaux plus 2 
pounds arsenate of lead to 
50 gallons of the spray. 


Third 


Just after blossoms fall 


Same as second. 


Fourth 


Two weeks after third 


4-4-50 Bordeaux. 



If additional sprayings are necessary use Bordeaux mixture. 

REVIEW QUESTIONS. 

1. Name the two classes of grapes, and give the sections of the country , 
where each is grown. 

2. Discuss the propagation of the grape. 



236 TUE GRAPE 

3. What determines the length of u grape cutting? 

4. In your opinion which is the most important method of propagating 
the grape? Why? 

5. Why is the nature of the sul>soil important in grape culture? 

6. What kind of a soil does the grape prefer? 

7. Is there any relation between the soil and the general location of a 
vineyard? 

8. Discuss the most economical way of planting the grape. 

9. What determines the distance apart the grape must be planted? 

10. When should the cultivation of the grape begin? Why? 

11. What is meant by training of the grape? 

12. Differentiate between staking and trellising. 

13. Which method is the most economical? Why? 

14. What advantage has the stake over the other systems of training? 

15. Describe the making of a trellis. 

16. Where is the overhead system of value and why is it not commercially 
profitable? 

17. Why is it unprofitable to pick grapes before they are fully' ripe? 

18. When is the proper time to pick grapes? Why? 

19. Why is it unprofitable to store grapes? 

20. What determines the proper selection of varieties? 

21. Name and describe the black rot of the grape. How is it controlled? 

22. What is the difference between powdery mildew and downy mildew? 

23. W'hy is the grape phylloxera so destructive? 

24. How does the injury from the grape-berry moth differ from that of 
the curculio? 

25. Give the spray outline for the grape. 



CHAPTER XVI. 

THE POME FRUITS. 

The apple, pear and quince are classed as pome or poma- 
ceous fruits. The flesh in the pome fruits consists of the 
thickened calyx tube, which becomes consolidated with the 
ovary or core and the edible part of the pome is the developed 
cal}^. 

APPLE. 

The apple is divided into several groups according to the 
several well-defined characters of the different varieties. 
Each group is usually named after the most important apple 
in that group, as, for example, the Ben Davis group includes 
the Ben Davis, the Gano and the Black Ben Davis as well 
as several more varieties of that type. Other groups are 
the Fameuse group, the Duchess of Oldenburg group, etc., 
and each includes a number of varieties which are similar 
to each other. 

Propagation. — The apple is commonly propagated by 
budding, by root grafting and by crown grafting. The root 
grafting and the budding are the most common methods of 
propagation. The root grafting is performed upon seed- 
ling roots diu-ing the winter. The grafted roots are then 
tied in bundles of convenient size and are stored in sand and 
placed in a cool cellar. When spring arrives and the soil can 
be plowed the grafts are placed in the nursery row about 1 
foot apart in the rows and the rows about 3 feet apart. The 
tongue and whip graft is the method commonly employed 
in doing the root grafting. 

The budding of the apple is becoming the most popular 
form of propagation during recent years. This form of 
propagation is employed upon the one-year-old seedling 
plants in the nursery row. The budding is performed during 
the late summer, usually in July, August and September. 



238 THE POME FRUITS 

The shield bud is commonly used, and it is inserted into 
the stock from 2 to 4 inches above the ground. After the 
bud begins to grow the old top of the tree is cut off and the 
budded variety is allowed to grow and to produce the new 
tree. 

Soil. — The apple does the best on a deep open clay loam. 
The soil should be well drained, either naturally or artificially. 
However, the apple is very cosmopolitan and can be grown 
successfully on almost any soil if it is well provided with 
available plant food. The soil for the apple should, how- 
ever, be retentive of moisture and be rich in plant food, 
because it is impossible to raise good fruit on poor soil. 
Sufficient moisture can generally be secured by mulching the 
ground with either manure or straw if water is the limiting 
factor. Occasionally, the newer soils in some regions are 
too rich in plant food, and such soils sometimes cause the 
apple to grow too rank and it does not set fruit. 

The subsoil should not be too near the surface, especially 
if it is very hard and retentive of moisture. A subsoil of 
this nature prevents good drainage and restricts the growth 
of the roots. Where such a subsoil exists, and the trees 
must be planted in such a location, it is well to break up the 
hard pan by exploding a medium charge of dynamite in 
each hole. This procedure will loosen up the soil so that 
the roots can penetrate it to a greater depth. It also pro- 
vides better drainage. 

Planting. — The soil for planting the apple should be well 
prepared. The preparation should be equal to that which 
is required for corn. The work of planting the trees will 
be greatly facilitated if the land is furrowed out both ways 
with a large plow and the trees set at the intersections. In 
the setting of a tree the hole should be made large enough 
to take in all of the roots without the crowding of any of them. 
The roots should be spread out e^'enly on the bottom of the 
hole. The fine top soil should be carefully worked among 
them so as not to leave any air spaces between or under 
the roots. The soil should be pressed firmly about the 
roots, and if it is in the proper condition for planting it 
cannot be firmed too much. 



APPLE 239 

The time of planting the trees varies with the locality. 
In the north, spring planting should always be done, because 
if the trees are set in the fall they are "especially liable to 
winter injury, and in some cases are killed. In the north 
it usually becomes necessary to dig the trees from the 
nursery row, and either heel them in by digging a hole in a 
well-drained place and covering up the trees, both root and 
branch with soil, or by packing them in a cool, moist cellar. 
The covering up of the trees with soil is called heeling in. 
Only specially constructed cellars are adapted to the storing 
of the trees over winter, and heeling them in out of doors 
will usually give better results. 

In other more favorable localities, as, for example, in the 
central and the southern sections, where there is very little 
danger that the trees will be injured in the nursery row, they 
are taken directly from the nursery and set out in their per- 
manent location in the spring. Where the trees are heeled 
in for the winter they should be set out just as soon in the 
spring as the ground can be prepared and the danger of 
severe freezing is past. 

Spring planting seems to be preferable in niost of the 
fruit-growing sections, principally because the tree soon 
starts into growth after it is planted. This early growth of 
the tree after it is set in the orchard is a decided advantage 
to it. The timely establishment of a tree in the soil prevents 
it from being exposed to the unfavorable elements of the 
weather and the chances are greater for its success. 

The fall planting of trees is practised in some fruit-grow- 
ing regions. This method can be follow^ed in those sections 
in which the winters do not get too severe and where there is 
plenty of moisture in the soil at planting time. In regions 
where the weather is severe the trees are sometimes laid 
on the ground and covered with some kind of a mulch. 
This procedure is expensive, it makes considerable addi- 
tional labor, and it is not generally recommended. Fall 
planting has one advantage where it can be practised, in 
that the work can be done at a time of the year when general 
farm work is not so pressing. Usually more individual 
attention is given to the trees if they are planted in the fall. 



240 THE POME FRUITS 

The depth to which a tree should be planted depends upon 
the kind of a tree, the nature of the soil and the locality. 
In the most favorable locations a tree should be set about 

4 inches deeper than it grew in the nursery row. In very 
dry and very light soils a tree can be set perhaps as deep as 
10 inches. On slopes of hills a tree must be set at least 

5 or 6 inches deeper than it stood in the nursery because of 
the slope of the land. However, where a good site with fer- 
tile rich soil is selected, deep planting is not very desirable, 
and usually 4 inches deeper than the tree grew in the nursery 
row is preferable. 

Distance Apart to Plant. — The distance the apple should 
be planted depends upon the variety, the climate and the 
soil. In localities where the conditions are favorable for 
growing the apple it should be set farther apart than where 
the conditions are unfavorable. Likewise the wide spread- 
ing varieties should be set farther apart than the compact, 
upright growing kinds. The short-lived classes can be set 
closer than the longer-lived varieties. In the favorable 
apple-growing regions of the east the distance varies from 
30 to 40 feet apart, while in some of the Pacific coast regions 
where the apple does not grow^ so large the trees are set 
from 25 to 30 feet apart. 

System of Planting. — ^There are several methods of planting 
trees, but the three most common systems are the square, 
the quincunx and the hexagonal. The lay of the land and 
the size of the orchard determine somewhat the system 
which is adopted. It is always important to have the rows 
run straight both w^ays, since the orchard looks better and 
it can be cared for more easily. In the laying out of an 
orchard the first thing is to establish a base line which should 
be determined by a surveyor when it is possible. iVll work 
should proceed from this base line. 

The square system is most often used chiefly from lack of 
knowledge of the others. It consists in planting trees at each 
corner of a square. This system does not require so many 
trees to the acre; it has the advantage of being easily laid 
out, it permits easy cultivation and it allows for systematic 
thinning should the trees become crowded later in life. 



APPLE 



241 



The quincunx system allows the planting of many more 
trees to the acre than the square system. This system 
is like the square with the addition of a tree in the center 
of each square. This plan introduces the use of fillers and 
provides for a well-laid-out orchard when the fillers are 
removed. 



9 • '< • < 

I ( b ; 1 I '• ( I (I ■ ( 

1 < I I I ( I « I' « 

1 1 I ( > ( > ( I < 

>. . . . . ; . . . . O < > . ' <i < 

> i i d t i 1 



Fig. 103. — Square system of planting an orchard. Placing the trees 30 by 
30 feet apart gives 49 trees to the acre. 



The hexagonal system uses about 15 per cent, more trees 
than the square system. In this system each tree stands in 
the center of a hexagon formed by six trees, all equal dis- 
tance from each other. It has the advantage of distrib- 
uting the trees more evenly over the ground than any other 
system, but the cultivation of the trees is more difficult. 
This method does not provide any logical way of thinning 
out of any trees later in the life of the orchard. 

Cultivation. — ^Young trees should be well cultivated during 
the early part of the growing season, but this operation 
should be stopped during the late summer or early fall so 
the trees will ripen up their wood before winter. 
16 



242 



THE POME FRUITS 



"^ 



>. / 
> 



X 



V 



-It 



• 



K 



V 









"^ * 

V 



V 



^^ 



« 



K 



V 






-»r 



Fig. 104. — Quincunx system of planting an orchard. Placing the trees 
30 by 30 feet apart gives 85 trees to the acre. 















^t'' 
.-'"x 






' ---^- 



" l"v 






^^': 



- • .- • 



I «-" I 

^4<" ! 



I 
I 



Fig. 105. — Hexagonal system of planting an orchard. Placing the trees 
30 by 30 feet apart gives 55 trees to the'acre. 



APPLE 243 

Occasionally some crop like the potato, squash, cabbage 
or tomato can be planted between the trees, which not 
only produces an income from the land but at the same 
time necessitates good and thorough cultivation of the ground. 
The practice of intercropping is not always recommended. 
Sometimes the orchard is badly neglected, unless intercrop- 
ping is practised, and it is better for the trees to have a culti- 
vated crop growing between them than to have the soil filled 
with weeds. 

After the trees begin to bear it is sometimes advisable 
to seed the land down with clover, which should be plowed 
under every two or three years and the soil cultivated the 
year the sod is turned under. Occasionally the orchard is 
seeded down with blue grass. Under some conditions this 
practice is permissible, as, for example, on steep slopes. In 
sodded orchards the trees should be heavily mulched by 
placing straw or manure 1 foot or more deep around them 
to the limit of the drip of the branches. Occasionally such 
orchards become sod-bound and must be cultivated. 

Mulching. — ^The advantage of a mulch around a tree is not 
generally appreciated. A mulch will check evaporation- 
and will prevent the running off of the water. It permits 
the water to soak into the soil and helps to equalize the soil 
moisture throughout the growing season. In dry locations 
it is of the greatest assistance and its use makes success pos- 
sible with many varieties of apples. A mulch is especially 
desirable on hilly land where cultivation is impossible. It 
is likewise valuable to mulch trees on sandy soil and on 
southern exposures. If the trees are set in sod and culti- 
vation is impossible a mulch is always desirable. 

The mulch not only regulates the moisture supply of the 
soil but it is of great value because it continuously adds 
plant food to the growing tree. The plant food is supplied 
by the gradual decay of the mulching material. When the 
conditions warrant it a tree will do the best if the mulching 
material is spaded under and incorporated with the soil. 

Pruning. — The apple bears its fruit on short branches 
called spurs. The removal of wood bearing these spurs 
naturally reduces the yield of fruit. Pruning, therefore, 



244 THE POME FRUITS 

offers a means for thinning the fruit, and a profitable way of 
securing good quahty. 

The apple should be headed low and the lower limbs should 
be started IS to 24 inches from the ground. This is done 
by pruning the growing tree heavily and topping it at the 
point where the head is to be formed. When a number of 
branches start, remove all of them except three or four of 
the largest to form the framework of the trees, since this is 
an ideal number. These should be distributed along the 
trunk of the tree and not come from one point. Never 
allow two branches to form a fork in a tree. The branches 
forming the framework of the tree should be cut back to 
about one foot in length the first year and all other branches 
entirely removed. Continue to cut back all branches each 
year until a uniform and symmetrical head is formed. 

As the tree grows older and after bearing begins, less 
pruning is needed and thinning out of the surplus wood is 
usually sufficient. If systematic pruning has been done 
during the early stages no severe pruning will be needed 
after the tree is mature. 

Harvesting. — The apple should be harvested carefully. 
Too early picking sacrifices both color and quality, while too 
late picking results in loss of keeping qualities and sometimes 
a loss from wind. The best time, then, for picking the apple 
is when it is w^ll grown and fully colored, but still hard and 
firm. This condition is known as the hard ripe stage. The 
seeds are colored brown and the stem of the fruit separates 
readily from the spur. 

The apple should be picked carefully and the fruit should 
not be pinched in picking. The fruit should never be 
removed from the tree by a straight pull as this tends to 
either pull the stem out or break off the fruit spur. It 
should be carefully picked and handled and never thrown 
carelessly into the picking vessel or from one receptacle 
to another. The bruising of the flesh or injuring of the skin 
should be avoided. 

The fruit should be placed in the shade of a tree as soon 
as it is picked and sent to the packing house in a short time. 



APPLE 



245 



Packing. — ^The apple is either packed in the bushel box 
or the barrel. The apple box is used the most extensively 
in the northwestern fruit-growing districts, although the 
eastern regions are using the box to a limited extent. The 
barrel is the most popular vessel in the central west and 
in the eastern fruit-growing regions. The apple barrel 
holds about three bushels. The distance to the market 
regulates to a certain degree the vessel which is used. As 
a rule the box is used where only very fancy fruit is packed, 
and higher prices must be obtained for it, because of the 
extra cost in packing and shipping. 




Fig. 106. — Apples well packed in different styles. (Wilkinson.) 



Every package should be clean, uniform in size and color, 
true to the grade throughout and have sufficient compres- 
sion to avoid looseness in transit. Each package should be 
properly labelled, which should contain the varietal name 
and the name and address of either the individual or the 
company packing the fiuit. 

The fruit should be carefully graded, both as to uniformity 
and color. All poorly colored or off-t>T)e apples should be 
discarded from the good pack. Any bruised fruit or apples 
which have their stems pulled out should not be included, 



240 rUE POME FRUITS 

because tliey will not keep and only aid in destroying tlie 
Yixlue of the pack. 

As soon as the apples are packed, they should be precooled 
and stored in a cold-storage plant. For home use a cool 
cellar is often satisfactory. However, in any event the 
apples must not be exposed to heat and sun, because this 
causes them to ripen up quickly and deteriorate in a short 
time. 

Varieties. — ^There are a great number of varieties of apples. 
Each region is adapted to the growing of certain well-defined 
groups of apples. The varieties that are found to be the 
most profitable by experienced growers are usually the 
popular sorts in the various districts. There is no way of 
knowing exactly what variety will do the best in any one 
locality, and therefore the variety should be selected accord- 
ing to the experience of some progressive grower in each region. 

The selection of varieties will depend upon whether they 
are for home or for commercial use. If they are wanted for 
the home a larger number of varieties can be selected, cover- 
ing a longer ripening period. If the varieties are for com- 
mercial planting, it is always advisable to select only four or 
five good standard sorts. The selection of only a few varie- 
ties for commercial planting is necessary, because the grower 
wants to have his crop ripen up at the same time and also to 
have a sufficient quantity of one kind to be profitable. All 
buyers of fruit demand a quantity of a few varieties and 
consequently they will not buy a few bushels of a number of 
varieties. 

Some varieties are very cosmopolitan and can be adjusted 
to many different regions, while other varieties are adapted 
only to limited areas and they cannot be grown out of these 
well-defined places. The Ben Davis, Baldwin, Duchess of 
Oldenburg and several others can be grown over a great area, 
while the Yellow Newton and some other varieties can only 
be grown in certain regions. 

Some of the most profitable varieties are the Baldwin, 
Ben Davis, Gano, Winesap, Greening, Grimes, Jonathan, 
Missouri Pippin, Spy, Duchess of Oldenburg, Tolman Sweet, 
Wealth V and a few others. 



DISEASES OF THE APPLE 247 



DISEASES OF THE APPLE. 

The apple is subject to attack b}" several insects as well as 
several diseases, and these troubles cause great loss yearl3\ 
However, most of them can easily be controlled if the proper 
treatment is given. 

The most common disease which is found in almost every 
apple-growing district is the so-called rot. There are three 
kinds of rot, namely, the black rot, the brown rot and the 
bitter rot. 

Black Rot. — The black rot not only affects the fruit, but 
it also produces cankers, on the branches and the limbs of 
the tree. The cankers serve as a continual source of infec- 
tion to the fruit. They also weaken the tree and finally 
cause its death. This fungous disease is first detected by a 
small brownish spot on the fruit, which spreads rapidly, 
when favorable conditions exist, until the whole fruit is 
involved. This rot attacks the fruit on the trees as well as 
in storage. 

Brown Rot. — ^The brown rot is sometimes known as fruit 
mould or ripe rot, and it is found not only on the apple, but 
it is abundant on the peach and the plum. This disease 
spreads very rapidly in damp, muggy weather and it is very 
disastrous. The disease first appears as a small, dark brown 
spot. This spot increases in extent until the whole fruit is 
affected. This fungus not only causes considerable damage 
to the fruit on the tree, but it also affects the fruit in ship- 
ment and on the market. The spores or fruiting bodies 
sometimes lodge on the fruit, where they germinate and grow 
during transit and the crop reaches the market in a poor 
condition. 

Bitter Rot. — ^The bitter rot is so named because the affected 
tissue has a bitter taste. The bitterness varies from an 
exceedingly bitter quality to that which can scarcely be 
identified. It is also called dry rot. This disease is easily 
recognized by characteristic black, circular and sharply 
margined spots, varying in size from i inch or more in 
diameter. The spots become somewhat depressed by the 



248 THE POME FRUITS 

shrinkage of the att'ected tissue, and finally become leathery 
or corky in texture. 

The rots can all be eil'ectively controlled by the use of 4-4-50 
Bordeaux mixture, applied to the plant at intervals varying 
with the season and the weather. In sections where the fruit 
is severely attacked by the rots, spraying will have to be done 
more often, especially in seasons of considerable rainfall. 
If the first spray has been with Bordeaux mixture, one or two 
additional sprayings given during the latter part of July 
and the early part of August will be effective in controlling 
the rots. The nimiber of sprays must be determined by 
the individual and the section of the country in which he is 
located. 

Apple Scab. — The scab is one of the worst foes of the apple, 
and it is quite generally distributed over the country, in the 
sections w^here apples and pears are grown. The loss due 
to this disease is not easily estimated. The fungus is more 
or less superficial, and unless the fruit is badly infected it 
sometimes reaches the market, but is sold at greatly reduced 
prices. This disease is commonly found on the fruit and the 
leaves, but it also attacks the leaf stalks, the flowers and the 
smaller twigs. The spots are usually more abundant on 
the lower surface of the leaves. The disease appears as small, 
irregular, almost circular spots on the fruit, giving the 
characteristic familiar scabby appearance. In extreme cases 
of infestation the fruit becomes puckered up and takes on all 
kinds of abnormal and irregular shapes. There are probably 
no varieties of apples or pears which are entirely free from 
the scab. 

Bordeaux mixture or lime sulphur solution are both 
effective in controlling this disease. The strength of Bor- 
deaux mixture which should be used is determined by the 
susceptibility of the variety to the spray injury. The 
strength varies from a 2-4-50 to a 5-5-50 mixture. If a 
variety is very susceptible to Bordeaux mixture, use lime 
sulphur, diluted 1 gallon of the concentrated commercial 
lime sulphur solution to 35 gallons of water. 

Fly Speck or Sooty Blotch. — ^The fly speck or sooty blotch 
is found on the. apple in many sections. At first it was 



DISEASES OF THE APPLE 



249 



thought the fly speck and sooty blotch were two separate 
and distinct diseases, but further study has revealed the 
fact that the fly speck and the sooty blotch are stages of 
the same fungus. This disease is occasionally found on the 
pear. Fly speck disease is quite superficial, and it appears as 
a number of small black specks, quite regular in outline. 
Each individual spot is about the size of a small pin head, 
and in the earlier stage it is still much smaller. A mass of 
the fungus gives the fruit the appearance of being covered 



«# 


^'\..M. 




If^v ^ 


.11 


^ 1 


IHHH 


1' J 


• < 


- A 


J 


■HF" 



Fig. 107.— The apple blotch. 



with soot. So far as injuring the fruit is concerned none 
occurs, but the discolored fruit is hard to sell, and conse- 
quently reduces the profits. Spraying for the scab will be 
effective in controlling the fly speck. 

Fire Blight. — ^The fire blight is one of the most serious 
diseases of the apple. It also is very injurious to the pear. 
It is a contagious disease of bacterial origin. The fire 
blight is caused by very small organisms called bacteria. 
They are rod-shaped and motile. They multiply by simply 
dividing and they increase very rapidly. Immense num- 



250 THE POME FRUITS 

bers of bacteria are produced in a remarkably short time 
and they soon completelx' fill the infected parts. The bac- 
teria live almost entirely in the sappy portion of the bark. 

The blight does not attack the fruit, but confines its 
ravages to the limbs and the trunk of the tree. The disease 
is first visible on the tips of the younger twigs, which become 
dried up and later turn black. It spreads rapidly and 
often wipes out entire orchards in a short time, when it is 
not fought vigor ousl}^ 

The disease is called fire blight because of the character- 
istic appearance of the foliage. It is also known as twig blight 
because it is usually first detected on the younger twigs. 
The disease gains entrance in various ways, as for example, 
through wounds left from pruning, and through insects 
visiting blooms during pollination. However, any abra- 
sion or wound on the bark of a tree gives a point of vantage 
for the entrance of the bacteria. There is only one known 
method of control for this trouble, and that is to cut out 
all cankers on the limbs and destroy them by burning. M\ 
infested twigs should be cut off and destroyed as soon as they 
appear. When the infected wood is removed see that the 
pruning tools are thoroughly sterilized by dippling them in 
a solution of corrosive sublimate after each cut. Spraying 
is of no avail in controlling the fire blight. 

INSECTS OF THE APPLE. 

Codling Moth. — The larvse of this insect cause wormy 
apples and it is one of the worst foes of the plant. The 
adult is a small, pale gray moth with brownish spots near 
the end of the forewings. Surrounding these spots on the 
wings is an irregular golden band. The larva of the moth 
is the common apple worm, which is found feeding in the 
core of the apple. It is pinkish in color and lives in the 
apple about twenty days, eating the fruit and growing to a 
length of about f of an inch. When the larva is full grown it 
crawls out and seeks a place in which to spin its cocoon. 

The moth passes the winter in the larval stage in a small 



INSECTS OF THE APPLE 251 

silken cocoon, either under pieces of bark or in some other 
convenient place which affords protection, in or near apple 
trees. These larvse change to pupa and the moths emerge 
in the spring. Soon after the emergence of the moth, egg 
laying begins. 

In order to control the codling moth the life history must 
be known. The growers, in the different sections, must 
know the time the moths begin to lay their eggs so that 
adequate and effective control methods can be used. After 
the worm is once inside of the apple it is proof against any 
remedy. The poison must necessarily be applied to the fruit 
before the larva enters it, if it is to be of any value. 



^1^ ^^f %|9 




Fig. 108. — Codling moth, natural size. (Slingerland.) 

There are two and in some sections a partial third brood 
of the codling moth, and remedial measures must be used 
against every brood. 

Since the larvae eat the fruit, it is necessary to use some 
stomach poison. The poison almost universally employed 
against this insect is the arsenate of lead. Three sprays are 
usually necessary. The first one should be given just as the 
petals are falling, the second one about two weeks after the 
first and the third later in the summer, the time ranging 
from July 1 to August 10, depending upon the locality. The 



252 



THE POME FRUITS 



strength of the poisoned solution is 2 pounds of arsenate of 
lead to 50 gallons of water. 

San Jose Scale. — The San Jose scale is a destructive insect 
in several of the fruit-growing sections. It is found on many 
of the economic plants as well as on many of the ornamentals. 
The apple seems to be its preference as a food plant, but 
it is found on the pear, quince, gooseberry and osage orange, 
as well as on other plants. The ease with which it is dis- 
tributed on nursery stock and its great power of reproduc- 



■■ 


HM 




1% 






Wjk ''^.'. 


^m u^.^mM 





Fig. 109. — San Jose scale and scab on the fruit of the apple. 



tion make its extermination in any locality practically 
impossible. Probably no other scale insect has ever been as 
injurious to plants as the San Jose. The San Jose scale 
attacks all parts of the plant. Its presence can usually be 
detected by the reddish discolorations on the back of leaves 
and on the skin of fruits. 

The insect is orange yellow in color and is covered with 
a grayish waxy secretion called the scale. The female 
lives under this covering and gives birth to living young 



INSECTS OF THE APPLE 



253 



instead of laying eggs. Owing to the great rapidity with 
which the scale multiplies very thorough treatment is 
imperative. At the close of a growing season, all stages of 
the scale can be found on an infested tree. The mortality 
of the older and the younger scales is always great and the 
half-grown insects are the individuals that usually survive 
the winter in the best shape and carry on the reproduction 
the following year. 




Fig. 110. — San Jose scale on the apple. 
No. 180.) 



(From Illinois Circular, 



The San Jose scale has a number of natural enemies, but 
owing to its great ability to reproduce so rapidly it does 
great damage in spite of its natural parasites. 

Each grower should become familiar with the appearance 



254 THE POME FRUITS 

of the San Jose scale, and should learn to detect its presence 
so that remedial measures can be adopted. The lime sul- 
phur wash is the best-known remedy, and perhaps the most 
effective, although kerosene emulsion as well as several 
other oil sprays will kill the insect. The best time to spray 
for the San Jose is in the spring, just before the buds swell. 
Commercial lime sulphur diluted 1 gallon to 8 or 10 gallons 
of water is the proper strength of the spray. Every part 
of the tree should be thoroughly coated with the spray 
material. If the infestation is very bad, spraying in the 
fall will aid materially in reducing the damage done by 
the insect. 

Canker Worm. — The canker worm has for a long time been 
an enemy of the apple, as well as many of the shade trees. 
The canker worms are among the most common of the 
loopers, or measuring worms, and they are the larvse of two 
nearly related species of moths, very similar in both habits 
and appearance. They defoliate the trees early in the spring. 

The two canker worms are known as the fall canker worm 
and the spring canker w^orm. These insects are so named 
because of the time at which the eggs are laid. The spring 
worm lays its eggs in the spring, and the fall worm lays its 
eggs in the fall. 

The worms do considerable damage in sections where they 
occur and they seem to be very widely distributed. In fact, 
the worms have been reported as being found in all sections 
of the United States, except along the Atlantic coast, south 
of New Jersey. These worms are reported to be somewhat 
injurious in the Mississippi Valley. 

The adult of both the spring and the fall canker worm is 
a moth. Th3 females of both are wingless, while the males 
of both are winged. The larvae of both species are quite 
similar and vary from f to 1 inch in length. They are dark, 
greenish-olive or black in color with white stripes along the 
sides. 

The canker worms can be controlled by spraying with 2 
pounds of arsenate of lead to 50 gallons of w^ater, just before 
the blossoms open and by repeating the same spray just 



INSECTS OF THE APPLE 255 

after the petals have fallen. If spraymg is not advisable, 
the females may be prevented from crawling up the trees, 
by circling the trunks with a band of sticky substance, such 
as tanglefoot or some other material. 

Tent Caterpillar. — The tent caterpillar is common in 
almost every garden, and it is found in many commercial 
orchards. It is detected by the webs of the insect adorning 
the apple as well as the cherry and other fruit trees. This 
insect takes its name from these webs which are made at 
the intersection of the limbs. At first the webs are quite 
small, but they gradually increase in size as the larvse grow, 
and in time form a shelter for the insects resembling a tenc. 

The adult insect is a moth, reddish brown in color and 
having two parallel white bands extending obliquely across 
the forewings. Soon after the mating of the sexes, the 
females lay about two hundred eggs in an egg mass, which 
is covered with a light brown, frothy glue. The little 
caterpillars hatch just as the leaf buds are expanding in the 
spring. The worms from a single egg mass cooperate in 
spinning the tent, which furnishes them shelter at night 
and during cold weather. When the caterpillar attains its 
growth it w^anders off, where it spins a cocoon, and about 
three weeks later the adult moth emerges. This insect would, 
in all probability, be more injurious than it is, if it were not 
for the numerous parasites which attack it, thus reducing 
its numbers. 

One of the best means of control is to cut out and destroy 
the webs or tents as soon as they are detected. If a cold, 
damp day is selected, practically all of the caterpiUars will 
be in the nest and they can easily be burned or sprayed with 
pure kerosene. Spraying with arsenate of lead, the same 
as for the codling moth, is also effective in killing the worms. 

In general the above insects include all that are of any 
consequence, especially the most common forms. There are, 
however, several other less important ones, but in general 
all of them can be controlled by spraying. 



256 



THE FOME FRUITS 



SPRAYING OUTLINE FOR THE APPLE. 



No. of 
spray. 

First 
Second 



Third 

Fourth 

Fifth 



Time to spray. 
Just before the buds swell in 

the spring 
Just as buds show pink 



Just as petals are falling 
Three weeks afte^r third spray 
About July 15 to August 1 



Spray materials. 

Commercial lime sulphur di- 
luted 1 to 8. 

Commercial lime sulphur di- 
luted 1 to 35 plus 2 pounds 
arsenate of lead to 50 gal- 
lons of spray. 

Same as second spray. 

Same as second spray. 

4-4-50 Bordeaux mixture 
plus 2 pounds arsenate of 
lead to 50 gallons of water, 
or commercial lime sul- 
phur 1 gallon to 35 gallons 
of water plus 2 pounds 
arsenate of lead to 50 
gallons of spray. 



PEAR. 



The pear has been commercially important for many 
years. It has been grown in this country since the time 
of the earliest settlers and within recent years large plantings 
have been made over the Eastern and Central States as 
well as in the northern regions. The pear has reached great 
importance in California and a large acreage is planted in 
that region. 

The pear has been developed from the wild pear of Europe 
and Asia. In its native state the fruit is hard and inferior, 
but under cultivation it has become edible and delicious. 

Propagation. — The pear is propagated in the same way 
as the apple, that is, root grafted in the winter, budded in 
the summer or crown grafted in the field. In some regions 
the pear is dwarfed and this is accomplished by grafting the 
pear on quince roots. This method of propagating the pear 
causes the tree to grow smaller and produces the dwarf pear. 
The dwarf trees have no particular advantage over the 
standard ones. However, the fruit can usually be harvested 
with greater ease on the smaller tree arid a greater number 
of trees can be planted to an acre. Dwarf pear trees usually 
fruit when quite young, sometimes when they are only three 
years old. The dwarf tree must be pruned systematically 



PEAR 257 

every year, in order to keep it in a compact form and to 
prevent it from becoming too straggly. They usually require 
more severe pruning than the standard trees. 

Soil. — The pear requires a rich, well-drained soil. It, 
however, thrives on a variety of soils, but it does the best 
on a rather porous clay subsoil. Usually the pear can be 
grown with a considerable degree of success in almost any 
soil in which the apple thrives. The pear is usually short- 
lived on a loose soil of open texture. 

Cultivation. — The cultivation of the soil is sometimes 
dangerous in the growing of the pear. It has been learned 
that fire blight is especially troublesome when the tree 
makes too rapid a growth and it is the practice of many 
growers to keep the land in sod to prevent too much new 
wood from being formed. However, the pear orchard 
must not be allowed to become too firmly sod-bound, so 
that the trees cannot make a reasonable growth. In case 
the trees do become sod-bound, it is advisable to plow 
the orchard and to cultivate it during the early part of the 
season and again seed it down to grass. Nitrogenous cover 
crops should usually be avoided and the most attention 
given to the use of potash and of phosphoric acid fertilizers. 

Planting. — The planting of the pear is very similar to that 
of the apple. The chief point of difference between the 
two fruits is the distance apart the trees are set. The 
pear, as a rule, is a more upright growing tree than the 
apple and the trees can be planted closer together. The 
standard pears are generally planted 15 by 30 feet, that is 
the rows are 30 feet apart and the trees 15 feet apart in the 
rows. The trees when they are planted this distance are 
allowed to grow until they interfere with each other, and 
then each alternate tree in the row is cut out. In other 
sections the trees are planted 20 feet apart each way and 
this method is satisfactory where the proper varieties are 
selected. The dwarf trees are planted 10 by 10 feet apart, 
but usually 15 by 15 feet is a better distance. The greater 
distance provides more room for driving through the grounds, 
for spraying and for gathering the fruit. In selecting the 
trees for planting see that they are young, thrifty and free 
17 



258 THE POME FRUITS 

from disease. A one-year-old tree from the bud or a two- 
year-old root grafted tree is preferable. 

The systems for planting a pear orchard are the same as 
those for the apple, and the only point of difference is the 
distance the individual trees are set. 

The time of planting the pear varies, but in sections 
south of the forty-first parallel of latitude fall planting is 
probably the best, but in the territory north of this line 
spring planting is recommended. 

Pruning. — The pear resembles the apple in many ways 
in the gi'owth of the tree. What has been said of the apple 
applies equally well to the pear. 

A low-headed pear tree is as desirable as a low-headed 
apple. The number of branches which make up the frame- 
work is usually five or six, because the pear tree rarely ever 
attains the size of the apple tree. The branches which form 
the framework should be distributed along the trunk of the 
tree, and never be allowed to form a fork. 

The young pear tree should be pruned back similar to 
that of the apple. Each main branch should be cut off so 
that it will be from 10 to 12 inches long. The operation of 
shortening the branches should continue each year until the 
tree comes into bearing after which time very little pruning 
is necessary. 

Mature and bearing trees should be thinned out from 
time to time and all water sprouts removed as soon as they 
are formed. 

Harvesting. — The harvesting of the pear is somewhat 
similar to that of the apple. The pear is usually picked 
before it is entirely ripe and allowed to ripen off of the 
tree. This early picking is made necessary where the pear is 
shipped away and also because the pear soon deteriorates 
after it ripens. As a rule, the proper time to pick is when 
the first pears begin to turn a light yellow, although some 
varieties are picked when no sign of color is apparent. The 
fruit should be picked carefully with the stem attached. 

Marketing.— The pear is packed and marketed in several 
styles of vessels. As a rule, the barrel is largely used although 
frequently the bushel, peck and sometimes the half-peck 



DISEASES OF THE PEAR 259 

baskets are used. In some sections the bushel box, similar 
to that of the apple is used. In certain regions each pear is 
wrapped separately in soft tissue paper. The pear is gener- 
ally packed for the market directly from the tree. The 
market demands a pear of medium size, and one of an 
attractive appearance. 

Varieties. — The selection of varieties varies with the 
section and the use of the fruit. The pears have a wide 
range in their season of ripening, so that if the proper atten- 
tion is given to the selection of varieties the grower may 
have fruit for his table or for the market from midsummer 
until early March. Many varieties are tender skinned and 
unfit for a commercial purpose but are highly prized for the 
home. 

A few varieties recommended for planting may be enu- 
merated as follows: Clapp Favorite, Bartlett, Bosc, Winter 
Nelis, Sheldon, Anjou, Kieffer and Lawrence for commercial 
planting, while the Bloodgood, Brandywine, Flemish Beauty, 
White Doyenne, Seckel and Angouleme should be added to 
the first list for use in the home orchard. 



DISEASES OF THE PEAR. 

The pear, like many other fruits, has several diseases and 
insects which are only found on this plant. In addition to 
these special foi-ms there are many more which are common 
to the apple and some of the other fruits. 

Pear Blight. — The pear blight has been know^n in this 
country for more than a century. The blight is perhaps 
the most serious disease of the pear. It is also found on 
the apple, where it becomes very dangerous on certain 
varieties. The blight is more commonly seen during the 
early part of the growing season. It usually appears in the 
form of a twig blight throughout the blooming period. 
The blight may continue to extend down the twig until the 
branch is entirely killed by its progress. However, under 
favorable conditions for the growth of the host plant, the 
blight may never extend more than a few inches from the 
tip of the branch. 



260 THE POME FRUITS 

The pear blight is the result of the work of bacteria. The 
bacillus multiplies very rapidly under favorable conditions. 
The nectar in the flowers offers a very good medium on 
which to develop. From this source it is usually carried 



^^ , 


^ 


£M 


1. 




*• 



Fig. 111. — Fire blight of the pear on the twig. (After Whetzel and Stewart, 
Cornell Agricultural Experiment Station.) 

from one plant to another by insects visiting the diffci-ent 
flowers. 

The control of the blight is only accomplished by system- 
atic and careful pruning. It may even be eradicated by 



INSECTS OF THE PEAR 261 

diligent work. The essential step consists in cutting out 
the blight in places where it may winter over. Where the 
blight is thoroughly pruned out during the fall and winter 
there would probably be no opportunity for infection the 
following season if care is exercised in preventing it from 
being carried in from other regions. When pruning, the 
i^nife should be disinfected after every cut by immersing it in 
a solution of bichloride of mercury. This serves to prevent 
the spread of the disease. Spraying is of no value. 

Pear Scab.— The scab found on the pear is closely related 
to that of the apple and quite generally referred to as a 
distinct species. The parts affected are the same as those 
on the apple. However, the scab on the pear seems to be 
more destructive and causes the fruit to crack open when 
it is very abundant. 

Some"^ varieties of pears are less susceptible to the attack 
of this disease, and the Bartlett, Kieffer and Le Conte seem 
to be the least affected. 

The same remedies recommended for the control of the 
scab on the apple are used for the pear. 

In addition to the diseases mentioned there are several 
more which are common to the pear, and are also found on 
the apple. These are discussed under the apple and can be 
controlled by the same methods as recommended for the 
apple. 

INSECTS OF THE PEAR. 

Many of the insects found on the pear are also common 
on the apple. Only those insects which particularly affect 
the pear are discussed. The most injurious insects to the pear 
are the codling moth, the San Jose scale, the pear psylla and 
the pear thrips. The codling moth and the San Jose scale 
are discussed under the apple. 

Pear Psylla.— The pear psylla is imported from Europe, 
and it is generally distributed over the country. It varies in 
abundance from year to year in different localities. Badly 
infested trees take on a sickly appearance early in the season, 
the leaves turn a brownish color, dry up and fall off early 
in the summer. The fruit falls prematurely. 



262 THE POME FRUITS 

The adult insect resembles a small cicada, and is about 
1-0 iiK^'b in length, dark reddish brown in color with a band 
of black across the abtlomen. The psylla is a sucking insect 
and takes its food by sucking the juices out of the plant. 
The insects usually collect around the base of the leaf and 
the fruit stems until these places become crowded, when 
they can be found feeding on the under side of the leaves. 

The control of this insect is made much easier if the 
orchard is kept clean and free from trash and rubbish. Dur- 
ing the fall the rough bark should be scraped from the trunk 
and larger branches to render them less attiactive places 
as winter quarters. 

Many of these insects crawl out from their hiding places 
during warm days in the late fall and early spring and are 
very sluggish in their movement. At such times large num- 
bers of the insects can be killed by spraying them with Black 
Leaf 40 at the rate of 1 pint to 100 gallons of water to which 
3 or 4 pounds of soap is added. The insecticide should be 
applied on days when there is no danger of the liquid freez- 
ing. Kerosene emulsion diluted w^ith 10 parts of w^ater or 
1 pound of whale oil soap dissolved in 4 to 6 gallons of 
water is also used effectively against this insect. 

Pear Thrips. — The thrips have become very serious in 
certain pear-growing regions. They seem to be widely 
distributed, being found in California, in New^ York and 
also in England. 

The thrips are very small insects, measuring only about 
yV inch in length. The adults are dark brown and emerge 
from the ground about the time the fruit buds are bursting. 

The injury done by these insects is very similar to that 
done by the psylla. They are found attacking the same 
parts of the plant and feeding in the same manner. This 
insect is also found on the peach, apricot and plum, but the 
pear suffers the greatest injury. 

The pear thrips may be satisfactorily controlled by proper 
methods of cultivation and spraying. The ground should 
be plow ed to a depth of 8 to 10 inches during the fall and in 
some cases harrowed and again cross-plowed. Two sprayings 
with Black Leaf 40 should be given in the spring. The 



INSECTS OF THE PEAR 



263 



first spray should be supplied just as the buds begin to open 
and the second just after the petals fall. Black Leaf 40 




Fig. 1 12.— The pear showing injury to the blossom clusters due to the work of 
the thrips. (After Parrott, New York Agricultural Experiment Station.) 



at the rate of 1 pint to 100 gallons of water to which has 
been added 5 pounds of soap is the proper spray material. 



264 THE POME FRUITS 



OUTLINE FOR SPRA.YING THE PEAR. 

Bp?ay. Time to spray. i^pray materials. 

First Just before the buds swell in Commercial lime sulphur di- 

spring luted 1 to 8. 

Second Just as the buds show pink Commercial lime sulphur di- 

luted 1 to 35 plus 2 pounds 
of arsenate of lead to 50 
gallons of the spray. 

Third Just as petals are falling Same as second spray. 

Fourth Three weeks after the third Same as second spray, 
spray . 

Fifth About July 15 to August 1 4-4-50 Bordeaux mixture plus 

2 pounds arsenate of lead 
to 50 gallons of spray or 
commercial lime sulphur 1 
gallon to 35 gallons of water 
plus 2 pounds arsenate of 
lead to 50 gallons of spray. 

QUINCE. 

The quince is the least importance of the ponae fruits. 
It is a native of Asia and Southeastern Europe. It is valued 
chiefly for the making of jelUes and preserves. The tree 
is small and irregular in growth and varies from 10 to 15 
feet in height. 

Propagation.— The quince is very easily propagated either 
by layering or by cuttings. Layering is performed by bend- 
ing the young shoots down in the spring and burying them 
so that a few of the terminal buds are exposed above the 
ground. By autumn the branch will be rooted and can be 
removed from the parent tree and set into a new location. 
The quince is also extensively propagated by hard-wood cut- 
tings, both for raising stocks as well as producing trees for 
fruiting. 

Soil.— The soil for the quince should be deep and rich. 
One that will raise good corn and potatoes is well suited for 
the quince. A clay loam is to be preferred ove: a sandy 
loam. Good drainage is essential and a porous subsoil 
is desirable. An appHcation of manure to the soil in the 
spring has been found to be beneficial. 

Cultivation.— The ground should be well cultivated during 
the growing season. If the cultivation of the soil is neglected, 



QUINCE 265 

the trees will sometimes be dwarfed, stunted and entirely 
unproductive. The cultivation should stop about the middle 
of the summer so the tree will ripen up its wood. This is 
very important because the quince is attacked by fire 
blight, and when the tree is allowed to grow too long in the 
fall it has the tendency to encourage this disease. 

Pruning. — ^Very little pruning is requbed. The aim 
should be to keep off the suckers which start from the roots 
and trunk of the tree. In the pruning of a young tree it 
can either be trained to one stem or trmamed so the plant 
will resemble a bush. In the latter case three or four main 
branches are allowed to grow. Where the plant is pruned to 
one stem and forms a little tree instead of a bush usually 
better and cleaner fruit will be produced. 

Varieties.— There are only a very few commercial varieties 
of quinces, and these are generally known and widely dis- 
tributed. The Orange, Champion, Rea and Meech seem to 
be the most popular, and are the varieties that are usually 
grown. 

Insects and Diseases. ^The quince is attacked by prac- 
tically the same insects and diseases that are found on the 
apple and the pear. There are no troubles which are 
specifically attached to only the quince as there are in the 
case of the pear. The quince, however, seems to be par- 
ticularly susceptible to the attack of the pear blight and 
leaf rust. 

OUTLINE FOR SPRAYING THE QUINCE. 

No. of o . ■ 1 

spray. Time to spray. Spray materials. 

First Before buds swell in the spring Commercial lime sulphur 1 to 

8. 
Second Just as the buds begin to swell 4-4-50 Bordeaux mixture. 
Third Two weeks after the second 4-4-50 Bordeaux mixture plus 

spray 2 pounds arsenate of lead 

to 50 gallons if curculio is 
present. 
Fourth Just as the blossoms are falling Commercial lime sulphur di- 
luted 1 to 35, plus 2 pounds 
arsenate of lead. 
Fifth About three weeks after the Same as fourth spray, 

fourth 



266 TJ1E POME FRUITS 



REVIEW QUESTIONS. 

1. Wliiit is iiieaut by poniaceous fruits? 

2. Discuss the two principal ways of propaj^atiug the apple. Which one 
is the most important? 

3. What is the most congenial soil for the apple? Why? 

4. How does the planting of the apple differ from that of the pear? 

5. Illustrate by drawing the three systems of planting an orchard. 

6. Which system of planting requires the least number of trees? The 
greatest number? 

7. Why is cultivation of the apple orchard important? 

8. Discuss the important points to be considered in pruning the apple. 

9. How does spring planting compare \\dth fall planting? 

10. What determines the distance in planting the apple? 

11. How does cultivation compare with mulching? 

12. Discuss the rots of the pome fruits and give the methods of treating 
them. 

13. How do the apple scab and the sooty blotch differ from the rots? 

14. What kind of a disease is the fire blight and how can it be controlled? 

15. Discuss the codling moth and the San Jose scale and give the methods 
of control. 

16. On what fruits is the San Jose scale injurious? 

17. Discuss the difference between the tent caterpillar and the canker 
worm, 

18. Does the propagation of the pear differ from that of the apple? 

19. Discuss the soil and the cultivation of the pear. 

20. How does the planting of the pear differ from that of the apple? 

21. Discuss the pruning of the pear. 

22. Name three varieties of the apple and pear that are good for the home 
garden, and three for the commercial orchard. 

23. Is the pear scab the same as the apple scab? Discuss. 

24. Describe the pear psylla and tell how it is controlled. 

25. Discuss the pear thrips and tell how they injure the plant. 

26. Give the spray outline for the pear. 

27. Discuss the cultivation of the quince. 

28. Give the spray outline for the quince. 



CHAPTER XVII. 

THE STONE FRUITS. 

The stone fruits include the cherries, peaches and plums. 
They are called stone fruits because of the hard stony seed 
found in the flesh. In general, each fruit has similar require- 
ments, although there are specific differences which are 
characteristic to each one. Practically all of the stone 
fruits are very perishable and cannot be kept for any length 
of time. They are affected by the same insects and diseases. 

CHERRY. 

The cultivated cherry has probably been produced from 
the two European species, Prunus avium, the ancestor of the 
sweet cherries, and Prunus cerasus, the ancestor of the sour 
cherries. 

The sweet cherry trees are characterized by a tall erect 
growth, by reddish-brown glossy bark which has a tendency 
to peel in rings. The flowers usually appear with the leaves 
and are generally born in clusters on lateral spurs. The fruit 
is either red, yellow or black and either sphedcal, heart- 
shaped or pointed. The flesh is either soft or firm. The sweet 
cherries are divided into three groups, namely, the Hearts, 
the Bigarreaus and the Dukes. 

The sour cherry trees are characterized by a low headed 
and a spreading form of a tree. The flowers are born in 
clusters from lateral buds, which appear in advance of the 
leaves. The fruit is round, red, soft and sour. The sour 
cherries are divided into two groups— the Amarellas and the 
Morellos. 

Propagation.— The cherry is usually propagated by budding. 
The budding should be done in the nursery row when the 



268 



STONE FRUITS 



trees are yearlings. The stock on which the cherries are 
budded is very important. The sour cherries are budded 
mainly upon jMahaleb stock, but sometimes they are worked 
on the Mazzard stock. The sweet varieties are almost 
universally budded upon the Mazzard stock. 




Fig. 113. 



-Sweet cherry tree, two years old. (Gould, United States 
Department of Agriculture.) 



Where cherries are grown on a large scale it seems to be 
advisable to select the buds for propagation purposes from 
bearing trees that have proved their worth. It is a known 
fact that certain trees bear uniformly every year w^hile others 
bear sparingly and some scarcely at all. When the buds are 
taken from non-bearing trees the propagator never knows 
w^hether the new tree is going to be of any value, while if 
the buds are selected from a bearing tree with good fruit 
the chances seem to be greater for success in producing a good 
bearing tree. 



CHERRY 



269 



Soil. — ^The cherry can be grown on a variety of soils. It 
probably reaches its highest development on a light, dry, 
sandy loam or a light clay loam. The sour cherries require 
plenty of moisture iii the soil, but the sweet cherries will 
grow very successfully on soil too dry for other fruits. The 
soil should be rich in mineral plant food, but it should not 
have too much nitrogenous matter in it. A rich, stiff, clay 




Fig. 114. — ^A sour cherry tree, three years old. (Gould, United States 
Department of Agriculture.) 



soil, with plenty of nitrogen in it, produces a tree that is 
rarely ever productive and is usually short-lived, while a 
poorly drained soil produces practically a worthless tree. 
The cherry is a heavy feeder and it should be encouraged In 
growth while young, but too much wood growth should be 
discouraged in the old and bearing trees. 

The subsoil for the cherry should be porous and well- 
drained. It should be neither a hard clay nor a dry gravel. 



270 STONE FRUITS 

Planting. — Many conditions enter into the planting of the 
cherry which determines the distance of the trees. The soil, 
the cHmate and the rainfall are the most influential factors 
in deciding this point. The habit of growth of the tree also 
regulates the distance. The sweet cherry, which is a vigorous 
grower, should be planted from oO to 40 feet apart, while the 
sour cherr}', which is not such a ^ igorous grower, can be set 
from 20 to 25 feet apart. On a rich soil more room should 
be provided for each tree than on a poor sandy soil. 

The cherry should always be planted alone and never used 
as a filler in an orchard, and neither should fillers of any 
other tree be used in a cherry orchard. 

The soil should be thoroughly prepared before any planting 
is started. The surface should be level and all large lumps 
and stones should be removed from the land. Any system 
which suits the tastes of the grower can be used in setting 
the trees. 

Either spring or fall planting can be practised. When 
spring opens early and the winters are mild, with plenty of 
moisture until late in the season, fall planting may be prac- 
tised to an advantage. When there is danger of very cold 
winter weather, early spring planting is the best for the 
cherry. 

The cherry should be set in a hole large enough to receive 
the roots without crowding them. It should be planted 
deep enough so the tree will be 2 or 3 inches deeper than it 
formerly stood in the nursery row. All broken and injured 
roots should be pruned off, cutting them in such a manner 
that the cut surface will rest on the bottom of the hole. The 
hole should be filled about one-half full with top soil and 
pressed firmly about the roots and the remainder of the soil 
should be thrown in and all tramped down well. When the 
planting is finished throw several shovelfuls of loose soil 
over the top of the ground. The loose soil prevents the loss 
of water and keeps it from baking and from cracking. 

Cultivation. — The cul1i^'ation of the soil is essential for the 
greatest success in clierry culture. The most intensive cul- 
tivation should be gi^'en to the young trees from tlie time 
they are planted until they are four or five years old. Clean 



CHERRY 271 

culture and good cultivation is probably better for the bearing 
orchard than is either the grass or the mulch system. 

The cultivation of the bearing orchard should start in the 
spring just as soon as the soil is ready to work. The soil 
should first be plowed or disked and pulverized by harrowing 
it until it is firm and smooth. When the soil is prepared in 
good shape, it should then be harrowed or surface cultivated 
every two weeks and after every rain until about the middle 
of July or the first of August. A cover crop should be sown 
about this time to check the growth of the trees and to ripen 
up the wood for winter. 

The cover crops used for the cherry vary in different 
sections and for different purposes. If the trees are making a 
poor and an unsatisfactory growth the cover crops should be 
a leguminous crop such as Canada peas, crimson clover or 
hairy vetch. If the growth of the trees is good and plenty of 
wood is being made then the cover crop should be fall rye 
oi' winter wheat. The following spring the cover crop should 
be plowed under. 

Pruning. — ^The first and the most important pruning of the 
cherry should be done at the beginning of the second year's 
growth. The lateral branches should be cut close and the 
top headed back to about 8 feet from the ground. This pro- 
cedure will establish a well-balanced, low-headed tree. 

Beginning with the third year select from three to five of 
the best branches for the framework of the tree and remove 
all of the other branches. The most central branch should 
be maintained as the leader and should be pruned so that it is 
5 or 6 inches longer than the other branches. The remaining 
branches which make up the framework of the tree should 
be cut back to 5 or 6 inches in length. The scaffold branches 
should be selected with relation to each other and should be 
well distributed. 

The fourth and fifth years the pruning should be directed to 
thinning out of the surplus branches and to establishing a 
systematical tree. As the tree grows older very little prun- 
ing is necessary. Usually after the cherry begin? to bear, it 
requires no pruning. 



272 STONE FRUITS 

Harvesting. — The method by which cherries are picked is 
determined to a limited extent by the way in which they are 
going to be used. If they are for immediate use in the home 
they can be picked either with or without the stems. If the 
fruit is for long distant shipment the stems must be attached 
to the fruit. If the stems are pulled off the juice will ooze out. 
In some cherry-growing regions the stems are clipped with 
small shears. 

The time of picking the fruit is determined by the distance 
of the market and the variety of cherry. For distant ship- 
ment the light-colored sorts should be picked as soon as they 
begin to color, and the dark-colored varieties long before they 
are dark and juicy. For local consumption the fruit can 
remain on the tree until it is ripe enough to pick without 
being too soft. The fruit should be handled carefully so that 
the skin is not broken or injured, because this gives an 
entrance to fungi, which will cause the fruit to rot. The 
cherry should nevci* be poured from one vessel to another, 
because this bruises and injures the flesh. 

Packing. — ^The fruit should be packed as soon as it is 
picked. If it is to be shipped any great distance it should 
be precooled at once and shipped in refrigerator cars. 

The cherry is packed in several different styles of pack- 
ages, which are characteristic of the different sections. The 
16-quart crate is perhaps used more than any other style, 
although in some sections the 24- and the 32-quart crates 
are used. 

A small basket holding from 6 to 8 pounds is used in places, 
while sweet cherries are oftei packed in a 10-pound flat box. 

Varieties. — ^There is a comparatively large list of varieties 
of the cherry, both of the sweet and the sour. Some varieties 
are valued for home use w^hile others are better suited for 
commercial planting. The varieties of cherries have not 
been developed for any definite geographical regions. Many 
varieties have been described, but only a few of them are 
profitable. 

Among the sweet cherries probably the firm fleshed >-ed 
and black Bigarreaus are the most profitable. The light- 
colored Bigarreaus and the Hearts are more susceptible to 



DISEASES OF THE CHERRY 273 

the fruit rot and the light varieties show bruises and finger 
marks when placed on the market. Among the sour cherries 
the Montmorency, the English Morello and the Early Rich- 
mond have been the best money makers. The Windsor, 
Royal Ann, Black Tartarian, Governor Wood and Nepolean 
are among the best of the sweet cherries. 

DISEASES OF THE CHERRY. 

The cherry has several diseases and insects that are serious. 
Most all of the troubles can be controlled by a correct 
diagnosis of the injury and the proper treatment. Few people 
realize that all of the so-called rots on the fruits and vegetables 
are diseases, and in many cases these can be prevented by 
timely treatment. The rot of the cherry, peach, plum, 
apple and pear is caused by the presence of a parasitic 
fungus which destroys the tissue of the fruit. 

Brown Rot. — ^The brown rot is a disease that attacks all of 
the stone fruits, namely, the cherry, peach, phmi and apricot. 
It is widespread and very destructive to the fruit. The 
brown rot first appears as a small dark brown spot. This 
spot increases in size until the whole hait is infected. While 
it primarily affects the fruit, it is also known to attack the 
flowers and the branches, following years of unusual out- 
breaks of the disease. The decayed fruit either falls to che 
ground or hangs on the tree, and it is a continual source of 
infection. This disease net only causes great damage in the 
orchard, but it also affects the fruit in shipment and on the 
market. 

In order to effectively control the brown rot, preventive 
measures must begin in the late winter or early spring. All 
of the mummied fruits on the tree should be destroyed and 
a general cleaning up given around the tree. The spraying 
of the trees with a 6-6-50 Bordeaux mixture when they are 
dormant will aid in killing many spores on the branches. 
After the trees come out in leaf a weaker solution of Bordeaux 
mixture sometimes helps to keep the disease in check. 

Black Knot. — The black knot is a very striking as well as 
a most common disease of the cherry and the plum. This 
18 



274 STONE FRUITS 

disease is very unsightly. It consists of wart-likc bodies 
which cover a considerable area on the twigs and the limbs. 
It is confined entirely to the woody parts and is usually 
found on one side of the branch. As the infected part 
increases in size the bark is broken and the fungus is seen. 
These knots will ha^'c reached full size by early summer. 
Since the knots are points of infection, and the fungus is local 
in its habit, it is evident that by the pruning out of the knots 
the disease can be eradicated. In fact only a few knots are 
present when the infection begins, and by carefully watching 
the tree and cutting off and destroying the knots as soon 
as they appear, little trouble w^lll be experienced with this 
disease. 

Shot-hole Disease. — The name of this disease is significant 
referring to the appearance of the leaf, which resembles one 
that has been shot full of holes with a shotgun. This disease 
occurs on the cherry and the plum and occasionally on the 
other stone fruits. Small infected area^ appear on the leaves 
and as the disease advances these diseased spots gradually 
die, shrink in size and fall out, leaving a small hole in the leaf. 
A number of these diseased areas occasionally coalesce and 
make a larger hole. This disease can be held in check by 
destroying all leaA^es, which is best done by cultivating the 
soil and turning the leaves under. If the trees are sprayed 
with the standard 4-4-50 Bordeaux mixture early in the 
spring while they are dormant it will aid considerabh\ Suc- 
cessive sprays should follow, with a dilute alkaline Bordeaux 
mixture, although on some plants the use of Bordeaux may 
be accompanied b}^ some injury to the foliage. 



INSECTS OF THE CHERRY. 

Plant Louse. — ^The plant louse often becomes troublesome, 
and especially on the sweet cherries, Avhich are more liable 
to injury by the louse than the som* varieties. The damage 
to this plant by the plant lice is similar to that of any other 
plant. These insects are always abundant on the under 
side of the leaves, and this irritation causes them to cui-j 



PEACH 275 

under. Spraying with Black Leaf 40, diluted 1 part to 500 
parts of water, or with kerosene emulsion is recommended. 

Slug.— The slug is the larvae of a small black fly. It is 
about one-fifth of an inch in length. The slug attacks both 
the cherry and the pear. In reality it is the pear slug which 
often feeds on the cherry. The adults appear in the spring 
and lay their eggs in a little slit made for that purpose on the 
under side of the leaf. The egg hatches into a little worm 
which soon becomes covered with a brownish, sticky, slimy 
material. The body of the slug is swollen in front and tapers 
behind, resembling a tadpole. The larvse feed upon the upper 
surface of the leaves, eating only the upper layer and leaving 
the skeleton of veins and the lower epidermis to turn brown 
and die. Badly infested trees lose all of their leaves by mid- 
summer. The fruit becomes stunted and fails to mature, 
and the vitality of the tree is greatly weakened. In severe 
infestations the trees appear to have been swept by fire. 

When only a few trees are attacked by the slugs, the insects 
may be destroyed by one or two applications of freshly 
slaked lime dusted on the leaves. On larger tracts arsenate 
of lead at the rate of 2 pounds to 50 gallons of water should 
be used. 

SPRAYING OUTLINE FOR THE CHERRY. 

^?aj Time to spray. Spray materials. 

First Before buds open in spring Commercial lime sulphur, I 

part to 8 parts of water. 

Second Just before blossoms open 2-2-50 Bordeaux mixture. 

Third Just after blossoms fall 2-2-50 Bordeaux plus 2 

pounds arsenate of lead to 
50 gallons of spray. 

Fourth Two weeks after the third Same as third. 

If the black plant lice are present spray with Black Leaf 40, 
1 part to 500 parts of water. If slugs appear after the fruit 
is harvested spray with arsenate of lead at the rate of 2 
pounds to 50 gallons of water. 

PEACH. 

The peach seems to be unknown in the wild state except 
where circumstances seem to support the opinion that it has 



276 STONE FRUITS 

escaped from cultivation at an earlier date. In parts of Asia 
and Persia apparently wild trees have been observed. Persia 
has for some time been regarded as the source from which 
this fruit came, but it appeared in Greece soon after the 
beginning of the Christian era. There is some question of 
doubt in the minds of many as to whether Persia is the 
original home of the peach or whether it came first from China. 
De Condolle is of the opinion that China is the original home 
of the peach and not Persia, as is generally thought. 

The first records of the peach in this country seem to date 
back to 1565, when the Spaniards are said to have planted 
peach pits at St. Augustine, Florida. There is very little 
doubt but that the earliest settlers in this country brought 
pits and cuttings of the fruit they were familiar with in their 
home countries and that the peach was among these plants 
imported. 

Propagation. — ^The peach is propagated exclusively by 
budding. The seeds or pits are collected and generally 
planted in the fall in rows from 3 to 4 feet apart where the 
seedlings are to be grown. In some sections where the 
weather is very cold the pits are stratified and the kernels 
planted in the spring. In dry climates it is important that 
the pits are not permitted to dry out. 

When the seedlings have reached the proper size they are 
budded. Usually the seedlings are large enough for budding 
by midsummer and the budding is done largely in July, 
August and early September. The shield bud is the form 
most often employed and the bud is inserted 2 or 3 inches 
above the surface of the ground. As soon as the bud grows 
fast to the stock it is a common practice to break over the 
tops of the seedling stocks by cutting them nearly off just 
above the point where the bud is inserted. The top can 
either be removed later in the fall or allowed to remain 
attached until the following spring. In some cases the top is 
cut off in the spring without being previously broken over. 

A limited amount of budding is sometimes done in June. 
This -is known as June budding, and is only possible in the 
southern sections, where the plant has the advantage of a 
longer growing season. Trees that are June budded are 
ready for planting the following fall. 



PEACH 277 

Soil. — ^The opinion is current that the peach should be 
planted on a sandy soil or some type of the Hghter soils. 
While excellent peaches are often grown on this ty^Q of soil it 
does not necessarily follow that the peach cannot be success- 
fully grown on heavier types of soil. The peach will do well 
on a wide range of soils, including even some of the moder- 
ately heavy clay loams. To say that any particular type of 
soil could be most profitable for the peach is impossible. 
Profitable crops are grown upon the lightest sands and the 
heaviest clays, and each soil produces a characteristic type 
and quality of fruit. 

The soil which is selected should be well-drained whatever 
the type is. The peach will not thrive on poorly drained 
soils. The soils that are hard and impervious to water must 
be avoided. They should be moderately fertile. A soil rich 
in nitrogen is not so desirable because it produces too niuch 
foliage, but it should not lack plant food in such quantities 
as to stunt the growth of the tree. The soils in which alkali 
occurs should be avoided because they never grow good 
peaches. 

Site. — The site of a peach orchard is equally as important 
as the soil. The peach is very tender and great care must 
be exercised in order to keep it from being frozen. As a 
general proposition a site that is elevated considerably above 
the surrounding country or that is adjacent to a large body 
of water is preferable for a peach orchard. Cold air always 
settles to the lower places, and for that reason it is often colder 
at the lower elevations than it is at the higher points in the 
same locality. A large body of water also influences the 
climate to a great extent. It prevents the warming up of the 
atmosphere in the immediate vicinity of the water and thus 
holds back the vegetation until the danger of frost is past 
and also delays the frost in the fall in a similar manner. 
The influence of the water is probably only felt for several 
miles, although the elevation has a great deal to do with the 
extent of the influence of the water. 

Planting.— The ideal preparation of the soil for the peach 
tree consists in deep plowing and the thorough pulverization. 
Equally as good a preparation should be given to the land 
as if corn were to be planted. 



27S STONE FRUITS 

Preliminary to tlie digging" of the holes for the trees the 
grower should plow one or two furrows as deep as the plow will 
run along the line whieh marks each row. This praetiee 
greatly reduces the amount of digging that must be done. 
The holes should be broad enough to admit the roots without 
crowding. The trees should be planted 2 or 3 inches deeper 
than they stood in the nursery row. 

In preparing a tree for planting all of the injured and 
mutilatecl roots should be cut off. The long, slender and 
irregular roots should be shortened to the proper length to 
make the root system uniform. 

Unless the tree is exceptionally large all of the branches 
should be removed, leaving only a single unbranched stem. 
The stem should be cut back to the desired height to form 
the head of the tree. The height ranges from 18 to 30 inches, 
according to the taste of the grower. 

As a rule, only thrifty, well-grown, one-year-old trees 
should be planted. Each tree should be free from injurious 
insect pests as well as fungous diseases. 

A well-grown tree does not always mean the largest tree 
in the nursery, but, on the other hand, the medium-sized trees 
are probably fully as desirable as the larger ones. A tree that 
has a well-developed root system should always be selected. 

The exact time for the planting of the peach cannot readily 
be given. In general, in the northern section, where the 
winters are severe, spring planting is preferred. The planting 
should begin as soon as the ground can be worked. In the 
middle and the southern latitude, where the winters are mild 
and w^here the fall season is favorable for the working of the 
ground, fall planting is generally successful and is preferred 
by many growers. It is desirable, however, to have fall 
planted trees reestablish some root action in their new loca- 
tion before the winter begins. 

The distance apart the peach is planted is regulated by 
the topography of the land, the fertility of the soil and the 
varietal characteristics of the tree. The most common 
distances are 18 x 18 feet, 18 x 20 feet and 20 x 20 feet. 
Occasionally trees are set 25 x 25 feet apart, and this distance 
probably does not allow any more space than the trees need. 



PEACH 279 

The peach is usually planted by the square system, but other 
systems are equally as good. 

Cultivation. — Clean culture is the common practice in 
nearly all of the peach-growing sections. In fact, good 
cultivation is essential to the continued success of the peach. 

The peach orchard should be cultivated throughout the 
entire season, beginning with the first year the trees are 
planted. The conditions sm-rounding the trees should 
determine w^hat the natm-e of the tillage should be. If the 
soil is hard and the cover crop heavy it will be necessary to 
turn the soil with a plow and follow it with a harrow or such 
other implement as best suits the individual case. If the soil 
is light, plowing can sometimes be omitted and some other 
type of cultivation used to thoroughly pulverize the soil 
to the desired depth. The soil should be worked with some 
kind of a tillage implement often enough to keep it loose and 
friable, k dust mulch 3 or 4 inches deep is valuable in holding 
the moisture. If a crust forms on the surface it should be 
immediately broken up. The soil should be worked after 
every rain. 

The tillage operations should continue until the last of 
July or the first of August. By that tune the growth will be 
made and the fruit buds formed for the next year's crop. 
The seed for cover or green manure crops should be sown at 
this time, which should be turned under the following spring. 

Pruning. — ^The peach is a stronger and a more rapid grower 
than almost any of the other fruits. The young trees are 
reduced to a single stem or whip and the head is formed from 
the shoots that grow upon this whip the first year. The peach 
responds readily to good treatment and gives much pleasure 
to the pruner. 

The object of the pruner in pruning the peach should be to 
cut out enough wood to force a good strong growth each year, 
to remove surplus fruiting wood and to give the tree the 
desired shape. The peach bears its fruit buds in the axis 
of the leaves and the fruit is borne on one-year-old wood. In 
removing the new growth some branches should be taken out 
while the remainder should be cut back to remove some of 
the fruit buds which they carry. It is difficult to say just how 



280 



STONE FRUITS 




Fig. 115. — Peach tree before pruning. (After Eustace, Michigan 
Agriculture College.) 




Fig. 116. — Peach tree after pruning. (After Eustace, Michigan 
Agriculture College.) 



PEACH 281 

mucli wood should be removed or how much of the remainder 
should be cut back. Some authorities claim about three-fifths 
of the wood is the proper amount to remove. The heavier 
pruning should be done early in the spring, while the light 
pruning should be done earlier, probably after danger of frost 
is past. The fruit should be kept as near the ground as 
possible, which can be regulated to a great degree by pruning. 
The fruiting wood can usually be forced to develop closer to 
the ground if the top is cut back. As the trees grow older the 
dehorning of the plant is often profitable. In dehorning the 
tree the entire top is cut off, leaving only stubs remaining. 
The stubs will throw out many branches which will form a 
new top. A few of the branches should be pruned out. This 
practice lengthens the life of the tree. 

Harvesting. — ^The time of harvesting the peach is deter- 
mined by the distance to the market and the variety. The 
tender skinned varieties will have to be picked sooner than the 
tough skinned sorts. In most cases the peach is picked while 
the one side of the fruit still shows a little green, particularly 
if it is to be shipped any distance. For home consumption 
the fruit should remain on the tree until it is ripe but still 
firm, so that the halves will not mash when they are cooked. 
Many varieties are very delicate and must be picked at a 
certain stage or there will be a loss from overripeness. 
Experience is the best guide for determining the proper 
picking time. 

The careful handling of the fruit is necessary in order to 
avoid bruising. The fruit should be placed in the shade until 
it is hauled to the packing shed. A specially constructed 
wagon should be provided in order not to jar and bruise 
the fruit. 

There are several styles of packages. The different pack- 
ages are usually characteristic of the peach-growing regions. 
The bushel basket, the half-bushel basket, the Georgia 
carrier and the six-basket crate are the most common types. 
The Georgia carrier and the six-basket crate are extensively 
used by some growers, but the bushel basket is perhaps the 
most widely employed. The ease of handling the bushel 
basket is no doubt the reason for its general use. 



282 STONE FRUITS 

The fruit should he graded as to uniformity in eoh)r and 
size for every package. The grower should endeavor to make 
an honest as well as an attractive pack, and the fruit should 
be of good quality throughout the package. 

Varieties. ^ — There are many ^'arieties of peaches, and these 
are usually based on regional differences. The adaptability' 
of varieties to different regions calls for some consideration, 
but it is usually a factor that is less pronounced than it is 
with many other fruits. The following varieties are among 
the most important and the most widely planted: Elberta, 
Carman, Early Crawford, Late Crawford, Salway, Lemon, 
Cling, Champion, Mountain Rose and Old Mixon Free. 
There are many other varieties listed and suited to various 
regions of the country, but they are not so widely distributed. 

DISEASES OF THE PEACH. 

The peach is subject to the attack of several diseases and 
insects. This plant has more specific diseases and insects 
which are characteristic only of very closely related plants 
than almost any other fruit. Many of these troubles are con- 
fined particularly to the peach. 

Peach Yellows. — The peach yellow^s is perhaps the most 
serious disease that attacks the peach. It is also found on the 
almond, the apricot and the nectarine. 

There can be no specific cause assigned to the yellows, but 
the symptoms of the disease are easily recognized by the 
premature ripening of the fruit, wdiich is highly colored, and 
the spotted and premature unfolding of the winter buds. The 
opening of the leaf buds occurs as early as July and as late 
as November. This symptom is very common on diseased 
trees during August, September and October. The fruit w^ill 
ripen from one to six weeks in advance of its normal season 
and will be deficient in quality. 

The yellows is a contagious disease and it spreads from 
one tree to another. The disease is supposed to be of bacterial 
origin, but this point is still a disputed question. 

The peach yellow^s must be controlled by preventive 
measures. Spray materials are not effective in holding this 



DISEASES OF THE PEACH 



283 



disease in check. All trees that show symptoms of the 
yellows should be cut out and burned. The diseased tree 
should never be dragged through the orchard because this 
practice will infect more trees, but should be cut down and 
burned where it stood. 

Little Peach.— The disease of little peach is also of obscure 
origin. The direct cause of this trouble is unknown, but it is 
thought to be similar to that of the peach yellows. The 
symptoms of little peach are similar to those of the yellows, 
except the fruit always remains small, drj^s up finally and 
becomes worthless. The same methods for the control of the 
peach yellows must be used for the control of the little peach. 




Fig. 117. — Peaches entirely destroyed by brown rot. (After Scott and 
Quaintance, United States Department of Agriculture.) 



Brown Rot.^ — The brown rot of the peach is a fungous 
disease that attacks the flowers, the twigs and the fruit. 
It is the most destructive to the fruit and becomes most 
abundant as the fruit approaches maturity. If the weather 
conditions are favorable for the spread of this disease often 



284 



STONE FRUITS 



from oiic-luilf to three-fourths of the crop is ruined in a few 
days. 

The (Hsease first ap])ears as small brown spots on the 
fruit, which rai)iclly enlarge, involving the entire fruit in a 




Fig. 1 18. — Peach leaf curl. (After Wallace and Whetzel, Cornell University.) 



few days. It has been proven that the plum curculio is very 
instrumental in the spreading of this disease. The brown rot 
can be controlled by spraying with self-boiled lime sulphur. 



INSECTS OF THE PEACH 285 

Eradicating the curculio by adding arsenate of lead to the 
spray mixture is also recommended. 

Peach Leaf Curl. — The peach leaf curl is a peculiar disease 
that causes the leaves to curl up in all kinds of shapes. It 
is caused by a fungous growth. This disease appears peri- 
odically and perhaps the weather conditions control its 
appearance to a certain extent. Damp, cold springs favor 
its development and the disease is usually worse during such 
years. 

The loss due to the peach leaf curl is hard to estimate, but 
authorities are agreed that it reaches into the millions of 
dollars each year. 

The peach leaf curl can be largely controlled by the appli- 
cation of some fungicide, preferably Bordeaux mixture, during 
the late winter or early spring just prior to the opening of the 
buds. The application of the fungicide must be thorough, 
so that all spores are killed as they are produced or as growth 
starts. 

In addition to the above-mentioned diseases there are 
several less important ones which are found on the peach, but 
which are controlled by carefully following out the spraying 
program. 

INSECTS OF THE PEACH. 

The peach is subject to the attack of several insects, some 
of which require special means of control. 

Peach Tree Borer. — ^The peach tree borer is found in every 
locality where peaches are grown. It is a native insect. The 
loss due to this insect is millions of dollars every year. 

The adult of the borer is a moth, the male and the female 
differing widely in color. The male has four transparent 
wings with a metallic color, while the female has front wings 
which are opaque while the back wings are opaque only over 
about one-half of their area, the remaining half being trans- 
parent. 

The damage to the peach is done by the larva of this insect. 
The insect passes the winter in the larval state in the trunk 
of the tree. Some of the smaller worms pass the winter 
in a small cocoon protected by a mass of gum on the bark, 



280 STONE FRUITS 

usually the larvit confine their work to the trunk or the roots 
of the tree, a short distance below the surface of the soil, but 
occasionally they are found 5 or 6 inches under the ground. 
When the larvse are full grown they leave their burrows and 
spin a cocoon, coming out as adult insects in three or four 
weeks. 




Canker on the limb of the peach. 



The only sure method for the control of this insect is to dig 
the larvse out of their buiTows with a sharp knife or some 
similar instrument. A wire can often be used to kill the 
insects in their burrows. The burrows of the borers are 
usually indicated by conspicuous masses of gum together 
with the casting and chewings of the insect. After the 



PLUM 287 

borers are dug out, which should be done some time in June, 
a small mound of earth should be pulled up around the trunk 
to a height of 8 to 10 inches. 

Many washes and disinfectants have been used from time 
to time, but all of these have to be handled with some care, 
and they are not very satisfactory. 

Peach Louse. — ^The peach louse sometimes becomes serious. 
The usual methods of control for all of the plant lice are 
effective against this species. The spraying of the trees 
with nicotine products will give the most satisfactory results. 

San Jose Scale.^ — The San Jose scale often becomes trouble- 
some when the peach is grown near the apple or the pear. 
The same remedies recommended under the apple for the 
control of the San Jose scale should be used for the peach. 

OUTLINE FOR SPRAYING THE PEACH. 

No. of 
spray. Time to spray. Spray materials. 

First Before the buds swell early in 4-4-50 Bordeaux mixture. 

the spring 
Second Just after blooming when the 4-4-50 Bordeaux mixture plus 

fruit is bursting the shucks arsenate of lead 2 pounds 

to 50 gallons. 
Third Two or three weeks after the Self-boiled lime sulphur; arse- 

second spray nate of lead 2 pounds to 

50 gallons of water (impor- 
tant.) 
Fourth About one month before the Self-boiled lime sulphur, 
fruit ripens 

The trees should be examined carefully every spring and 
fall for the borer, which should be dug out whenever it is 
found. Where the yellows or the little peach is present 
destroy the tree as soon as the disease is discovered. 



PLUM. 

The plum is a very old fruit. The native species have been 
found growing in this country- for many years. As early as 
1524 foreign explorers of America tell of plums which were 
found growing wild in this country in the vicinity of New 
York. A little later, in 1539, another explorer describes the 
plum growing abundantly in the region of Florida. From 



288 STONE FRUITS 

these old accounts, it would seem that the native plum has 
been known for many years, and some of our best varieties 
of today are improvements of some of the wild sorts. 

Most of our cultivated plums are derived from several 
species of wild plimis. The European plums were developed 
from Prunus domestica, Prunus insititia and Prunus cera- 
sifera, the Japanese plums from Prunus triflora and the 
American plums from Prunus americana, Prunus nigra and 
Prunus hortulana, while the Chinese species, Prunus simonii, 
has given us at least one variety. 

The European plums have reached a higher state of 
development than either the American or the Japanese 
sorts. This is probably due to the fact that the European 
varieties have been under cultivation longer and have been 
more systematically improved. 

The plums are divided into several groups. The groups are 
distinct in characteristics while the varieties in each group 
are similar to each other. The most common varieties are 
the Damson, the Yellow Egg, the Diamond, the Bradshaw 
and the Lombard. 

Propagation. — ^The plum is either propagated by budding 
or by root grafting. Budding is more generally practised and 
is more successful. The work is done at the close of the 
active growing season, which is either in August or early in 
September. The stocks for the propagation of the plum 
differ in various sections. In the east and the south the 
INIyrobalan and the Marianna plums are usually employed 
as stocks. The peach is sometimes used also. In other 
regions the native seedlings are the best stocks because of 
their hardiness and then* adaptability to the locality. 

The seed should be sown in the spring, and if they are given 
good care and attention the seedlings will usually be large 
enough for budding by the following August. 

There is some discussion as to whether budding or grafting 
is preferable, although in practice the greatest success has 
been obtained by budding. The shield bud is the form always 
employed. Some propagators use the whip graft, and while 
the plum can be increased by this method there are many 
failures, and it is thought that budding is far superior to that 
of root grafting. 



PLUM 289 

Some species of plums, and particularly the Marianna, grow 
very easily from hard-wood cuttings. Many cuttings from 
these species are made every year and are used for stocks on 
which to bud the named varieties. 

Soil. — ^The plum will succeed on any kind of soil. Next 
to the apple, perhaps, the European plum can be profitably 
grown on a greater range of soils than almost any other fruit. 
When we consider the American and the Japanese varieties 
it becomes an easy matter to select a plum that can be 
grown practically everywhere. 

The domestic plums generally do the best on a rather 
heavy clay loam. If this class of soil is well drained and com- 
paratively warm it is also an ideal soil for the European 
varieties. 

The Japanese varieties prefer a lighter soil than the 
European sorts. A light sandy loam that is warm and 
friable is best suited to the Japanese varieties. In fact, they 
will do comparatively well on a soil that is largely sand. 

The Americana and the Miner groups require about the 
same kind of soil. A rich heavy loam is preferred. A small 
amount of sand is not injurious and does not interfere with 
their growth if the climate is favorable. 

The Wild Goose types and their close relatives have a dis- 
taste for cold, heavy, clay soils. A rich sandy loam is pref- 
erable, although they do well on a great variety of the looser 
types of soil. 

Planting. — ^The selection of a good tree should receive the 
first attention in planting. A two-year-old plum tree is 
planted in most cases, although theie are certain southern 
sections where one-year-old Japanese trees are large enough 
to plant. All trees should be of good quality and healthy 
and budded on the stock which best suits your individual 
requirements. 

The distance apart for planting the plum varies according 
to the variety, the soil and the locality. Where the ground 
is rich the trees must be set farther apart than where the soil 
is poor. Some of the smaller upright growing varieties can 
be set 15 X 18 feet while other more vigorous growing sort 
should be planted 18 x 20 feet apart, and occasionally 
20 X 254feet is not too much space for the trees. 
19 



290 STONE FRUITS 

The time of planting is regulated by the location and in a 
general way agrees with that of the cherry. There seems to 
be no advantage in spring planting over fall planting if the 
climatic conditions are favorable for fall planting. If the 
soil is well-prepared and the trees are well-ripened they 
may be set in the fall Avith good success. If the trees are not 
in a well-ripened and mature condition, spring planting is 
preferred. In selecting and planting the different varieties 
they should be mixed with reference to cross-pollination. 
Many varieties are sterile or partially sterile, and if they are 
planted in a solid block with no other fertile varieties they 
will never set fruit. This is a very important phase of the 
industry, and it should be thoroughly vmderstood before 
planting the plum. 

Cultivation. — The plums grow and thrive better when the 
trees are cultivated. The same conditions suggested for the 
apple apply with equal force to the plum. The orchard should 
be plowed in the spring. The soil should be cultivated at 
frequent intervals throughout the spring and the summer 
until the middle of Jul}^ or the first of August, when culti- 
vation should stop. The orchard should then be sown with 
some cover crop. The cover crop will use up the surplus 
moisture and the plant food which will check the growth of 
the trees and they will lipen their wood before cold weather 
arrives and will pass the winter in good shape. 

The cover crops which are selected depend upon the soil, 
the locality and the condition of the trees. If the soil is 
sandy and the orchard located in the southern part of the 
country, crimson clover, cow peas or soy beans are perhaps 
the best. If the soil is of the heavier types and the orchard 
located in the north, rye, buckwheat, peas or mammoth clover 
is preferred. On sandy soils in the north hairy ^'etch is 
excellent. The seed of all cover crops should be sown thickly 
so that a good stand will be obtained. A common mistake is 
to have the cover crop too thin and little good is derived from 
its use. 

Thinning. — Thinning is important with many fruits, but 
perhaps more so with the plum than with any other. Many 
of the American and the Japanese plums have a great 



PLUM 291 

tendency to overbear. Sometimes varieties of these plums 
will set three or four times as many fruits as the tree can 
mature, and they will often do this year after year. This 
overbearing tends to weaken the trees and many are killed 
by it. 

The fruit should be thinned immediately after the June 
drop. Thinning is usually done by hand, and although it 
seems a rather expensive task it will repay the grower. 
Good judgment must be used in thinning and the number of 
fruits allowed to remain will usually vary with every grower. 
The distance between the plums will depend upon several 
factors, but a conservative distance is from 3 to 5 inches 
between each fruit on the limb. 

Pruning.^ — The plum trees vary widely in their habit of 
growth and their fruit bearing. Owing to this great varia- 
tion no well-defined system of pruning will suit all types. 
Many plums resemble the apricot in their fruit-bearing 
habits, but still many more are like the cherry and still 
others show more of an inclination to bear only branch buds 
on the new wood. 

The plum is subject to sun scald on its trunk and therefore 
should be headed low. The young trees of all types will 
need some cutting back and thinning out to develop a good 
tree. 

Some trees will require pruning to spread them. As the 
trees become older and more mature very little if any pruning 
will be necessary. Occasionally some thinning out of water 
sprouts or the removal of a branch which is rubbing will be 
necessary, but usually no severe pruning will be needed. 

Harvesting. — The plums are perhaps less liable to injury 
from handling than either the peach or the cherry. As a rule 
the skin of the plum is tough enough to withstand con- 
siderable handling without serious injury. The plum, how- 
ever, should not be bruised or the skin broken, because this 
will cause the fruit to decay. 

Some varieties of plums color up long before they are ripe, 
and it requires a little experience to determine the exact time 
for harvesting. The plum, howe^ er, should not be picked 
until it is almost ripe, although it should not remain on the 
tree so long that it will be injured in handling or shipping. 



292 STONE FRUITS 

The fruit is usually picked with the stem attached. The 
plums are often very uniform in size, although occasionally 
they require some grading. The grading is more often 
necessary with the larger sorts than it is with the smaller 
varieties. The large prune types are sometimes marketed in 
boxes similar to those of the cherry, while the smaller varieties 
are usually sold in half bushel baskets, and occasionally in 
grape baskets. The size of the plum determines to a large 
extent the t\pe of package in w^iich it is marketed. In some 
cases the plums are sorted and graded and are then packed 
in the fom-'basket crate. 

Varieties. — The selection of the proper varieties is pri- 
marily a local question. The planter w^ill do well to consult 
some successful growler in his local community. 

Many varieties of native plums have originated mainly 
in the Mississippi valley and in some of the southern regions. 
Iowa, Minnesota, South Dakota and Texas have produced 
by far the greatest number of good varieties, largely from 
native stock. 

To select a list which will fit all sections of the country 
would be impossible, but the following varieties have a some- 
what wider range than many others: Damson, Burbank, 
De Sota, Hawkeye, Lombard, Diamond, Abundance and 
Wild Goose. Many local varieties are good, and in regions 
where these do well they should be selected. 

DISEASES OF THE PLUM. 

The plum is affected by practically the same diseases as the 
cherr}^ The brown rot sometimes known as the ripe rot of 
the plum, is perhaps the most destructive (see description 
under Cherry). The black knot of the plum is the same as 
found on the cherry. The shot-hole fungus which attacks the 
cherry is likewise found on the plum. These diseases are 
controlled in the same manner as on the cherry. 

Gummosis. — ^This trouble seems to be more prevalent on 
the plum than upon the other stone fruits, although it is 
found upon the cherry and the peach as well as upon the 
plum. 



DISEASES OF THE PLUM 



293 



The s^Tiiptoms of gummosis is the accumulation of a 
gummy exudation on the trunk and the branches of the tree. 
The gum at first is hght colored and soft, but later turns 
a dark yellowish color and becomes hard. This gunmiy 
material accumulates in large quantities at certain points, 
particularly in crotches and places where a limb has been 
split. Small patches are usually found scattered over the 
trees at many points. 




Fig. 120. 



-Black knot of the plum. (New Jersey Agriculture Experiment 
Station.) 



The cause of this trouble is due to a number of things and 
in reality is only an attempt by nature to protect a wound on 
the plant. Borers, insect injuries, splits or any injury to the 
tree will often cause the plum to exude this gummy material. 
Usually no great injury results from its presence, and the best 
way to get rid of it is to remove the primary cause, whatever 
that may be. 



294 STONE FRUITS 

Scab. — ^The scab on the plum is a disease somewhat similar 
to that found on the apple. The scab of the plum is also 
found on the peach and the apricot. The disease is char- 
acterized by numerous small, circular, dark-colored spots, 
usually found on one side of the fruit, but sometimes it 
covers the entire fruit. The twigs and the leaves are also 
affected. Bordeaux mixture is usually able to hold this 
disease in check. 

INSECTS OF THE PLUM. 

The plum is attacked by several insects, some of which 
are particularly destructive to it alone like the phun curculio, 
while others are more or less destructive to all stone fruits. 
The San Jose scale and the fruit Lecanium scale are some- 
times particularly troublesome. 

Curculio.^ — ^The plum curculio is the worst insect enemy 
of the plum. The curculio is primarily an enemy of the stone 
fruits, but also attacks the apple, the pear and the quince. 
It is by far the most destructive insect with which the grower 
of the stone fruits has to contend. In some regions it often 
destroys the entire crop in an unprotected orchard. 

The curculio is a small snout beetle about one-fifth of an 
inch in length, mottled with black, gray and brown. The 
beetles attack the fruit as soon as it is set. Two kinds of 
punctures are made — those for the reception of the egg and 
those for feeding. 

The feeding punctures are only small holes, which are 
about one-eighth of an inch deep. The egg-laying punc- 
tures are much different. A small hole is made in the fruit 
with the snout and the egg is laid in this hole. After the 
egg has been deposited the female cuts a crescent-shaped 
slit under the egg, to protect it from injury while the plum 
is growing. This way of depositing the egg allows it to 
develop in a flap of flesh. The egg laying continues over a 
long period and sometimes it lasts throughout the entire 
season. However, in most cases the greater number of eggs 
are laid the first month after the females come out of their 
winter quarters. 

The first step in the control of this insect is to clean up 



INSECTS OF THE PLUM 



295 



and burn all rubbish. The hibernating quarters should be 
reduced to a minimum by the removal of everything that will 




Fig. 121. — Plum curculio on a young peach. (Quaintance, United States 
Department of Agriculture.) 




Fig. 122. — Plum showing crescent -shaped, egg-laying punctures. 
(Quaintance, United States Department of Agriculture.) 



give the insects shelter over winter. The trees should be 
pruned so as to admit plenty of light to the interior branches. 



296 STONE FRUITS 

The frequent and thorough cultivation of the ground while 
the pupa is still in the soil is of great value. The cultivation 
should begin in the first part of July and continue to the first 
of August in the north, but it must begin somewhat earlier 
in the south. 

One of the earliest methods of control for the curculio was 
by jarring. This method was the chief means of control for 
many years and it is still practised extensively where only a 
few trees are treated. In order to control the curculio by 
jarring a sheet is first spread on the ground under the tree. 
The tree is then suddenly jolted by hitting the trunk with 
the end of a padded mallet. The beetles when suddenly 
disturbed cm-l up and fall on the sheet and can then be col- 
lected and destroyed. The jarring, to be the most effective, 
should be done early in the morning when the beetles are less 
active. 

The jarring has gradually been replaced by spraying in the 
larger orchard because of the cheaper cost. 

The spraying with arsenate of lead either alone or com- 
bined with a fungicide has now come to be the most favorite 
method of controlling the curculio. The spraying of the 
plum is somewhat more difficult than most of the other 
fruits, but many growers believe that the result justifies the 
practice. Two applications are usually made, the first soon 
after the petals fall and the second from a week to ten days 
later. Arsenate of lead applied at the rate of about 2 J pounds 
to 50 gallons is effective. This can be added to either lime 
sulphur or a 2-2-50 Bordeaux mixture. 



OUTLINE FOR SPRAYING THE PLUM. 

No. of • 

spray. Time to spray. Spray materials. 

First Just before the blossoms open 4-4-50 Bordeaux mixture or 

lime sulphur 1 to 40. 

Second Just after the blossoms fall Commercial lime sulphur 1 to 

50 or self-boiled lime sul- 
phur, plus 2 pounds arsen- 
ate of lead to 50 gallons. 

Third Two weeks after the second Same as second. 

Fourth About the middle of June Same as second. 

Fifth Late July or early August Self-boiled lime sulphur or am- 

moniacal copper carbonate. 



REVIEW QUESTIONS 297 

If the plant lice appear spray the trees with Black Leaf 
40 at the rate of 1 part to 500 parts of water. 

Cut out and burn all knots whenever they are seen. 

REVIEW QUESTIONS. 

1. Name the stone fruits. 

2. Why are these fruits called stone fruits? 

3. How does the sweet cherry differ from the sour cherry? 

4. Why is the cherry usually propagated by budding? 

5. How does the soil for the cherry differ from that of the peach? 

6. What conditions influence the distance apart the cherry should be 
planted? 

7. What determines the time for planting young cherry trees? 

8. Discuss the cultivation of the cherry. 

9. Name three sweet and three sour cherries for home planting. 

10. Discuss the brown rot of the cherry and give the best remedy for its 
control. 

1 1. How is the black knot of the cherry controlled? 

12. Give the spray outline for the cherry. 

13. What factors prove that the peach is a very old fruit? 

14. Discuss the propagation of the peach. 

15. Has the soil and the site of a peach orchard any relation to each other? 

16. What type of soil is preferable for the peach? Why? 

17. Discuss the preparation of the soil before planting the peach. 

18. What treatment should be given the young peach tree before planting? 

19. What determines the distance in setting out the peach? 

20. How do the peach yellows differ from the little peach? 

21. What is used for the control of the peach-leaf curl? 

22. How can the peach-tree borer be exterminated? 

23. Why is it impossible to control the borer with an insecticide? 

24. Give the spraying outline for the peach. 

25. How does the plum compare in age with the peach? 

26. How does the propagation of the plum differ from that of the peach or 
the cherry? 

27. Discuss the methods of planting the plum. 

28. What is the value of thinning the fruit of the plum? 

29. Name several varieties that are generally grown. 

30. Discuss the diseases common to the plum? What remedies are 
advised? 

31. Discuss the plum curculio. How is it controlled? 

32. Give the spray outline for the plum. 



CHAPTER XVIII. 
THE CITRUS FRUITS. 

The citrus fruits include the orange, lemon, grape fruit, 
tangerine, kumquat and lime. All of these fruits are grown 
in the citrus belt, but the oranges, lemons and the grape 
fruit are the most important of the citrus fruits. 

The citrus industr^^ is confined to certain definite regions 
of the United States. The citrus regions are located in 
California, Florida, Texas, New Mexico and Arizona, but by 
far the larger commercial plantings are found in California 
and in Florida. The original home of the citrus fruit was in 
India and the Malay Archipelago, but today the great 
bulk of the oranges which supply the markets of the world 
are produced in California, Florida, Spain, Palestine, Aus- 
tralia, Italy and Japan. Certain parts of Mexico produce 
citrus fruit to a limited extent, but they seem to lack good 
shipping qualities. 

The citrus fruit was first introduced into this country in 
southern California. The seed was brought into this state 
from the lower peninsula of California by the early Spanish 
settlers. These settlers not only brought the citrus fruit 
but they introduced many other tropical and semitropical 
fruits such as figs, grapes, olives and dates. 

Orange. — The orange is divided into several species, some 
of which are edible, as the sweet oranges, and others, the 
sour oranges, which are used for the manufacture of certain 
oils and other products. 

The sweet orange is the one which is commonly known and 
which is used extensively for the table. The sweet orange 
includes many varieties. The Navel and the Valencia are 
the most important varieties, although there is a long list, 
and some give excellent promise for the production of superior 
fruit. 



LEMON 299 

The sour orange is used principally as stock on which to 
graft the sweet varieties. The fruit of the sour orange is 
not edible, but it is used to some extent for flavoring. The 
sour orange is valuable as a stock because of its resistance 
to the foot rot and the gum diseases. 

Grape Fruit.^ — Technically the term grape fruit is incor- 
rect, but it has gained so much prestige on the market that 
it will in all probability remain. The correct name of this 
fruit is pomela. The grape fruit is usually a prolific bearer. 
The fruit is gaining rapidly in popularity and more of it is 
consumed every year. 

Kumquat. — The kumquat is a small yellow citrus fruit 
resembling a small orange. It is sometimes called golden 
orange. The fruit is often used for decorating and the pulp 
of the fruit for preserving. 

Lime. — The lime is a small yellow citrus fruit resembling 
a small lemon. It is classed as a shrub, but when it is given 
room to grow it forms a small tree. The lime is the most 
tender of the citrus fruits, and it is killed back by a slight frost 
but usually sprouts up vigorously the next year. The skin 
of the lime is thin and of a lemon-yellow color. The pulp 
is a pale green and is filled with a very sharp acid juice. 
The juice and the pulp of the lime are better for most purposes 
than that of the lemon, and it is used in preference to the 
lemon by people in tropical countries. The lime is now 
found on most of our important northern markets, due to 
the better transportation facilities. 

Lemon.— The lemon is one of the best-known citrus fruits. 
While the lemon is not as extensively cultivated as the 
orange it is probably equally as valuable. The lemon is 
gaining in popularity in the citrus regions and it is now 
being planted more than formerly. The lemon is supposed 
to have originated from the citron, and it was first intro- 
duced into Palestine and Egypt in the tenth century and 
into Europe at the time of the crusades. The lemon trees 
are faster growing than the orange trees, and they are 
usually more productive and will stand more neglect. The 
lemon includes both the sweet and the sour types. 



300 



CITRUS FRUITS 



Propagation. — The citrus fruits are usually propagated by 
budding. Although a few varieties can be grown with some 
success by grafting, cutting and layering these methods 
are not to be generally recommended. Occasionally the 
lemon can be grown from cuttings, but the trees are rai'ely 
ever successful. The orange cutting can rarely ever be made 
to take root, and this method of propagation should not be 
considered. 



Fig 




Making a new top on a citrus tree. 



The shield or T-bud is universally used in the propaga- 
tion of the citrus fruits. The success of this method is 
largely dependent upon the proper selection of the budding 
wood. Citrus buds should be cut from round plump wood 
taken from fruiting branches. Suitable wood of this char- 
acter is difficult to find on the orange but it is more plentiful 
on the lemon. The orange tree from which the buds are to be 
selected must be prepared a year in advance. The prepara- 
tion of the tree consists in systematically pruning the 



PROPAGATION 



301 



branches to a given length and causing healthy, plump buds 
to form. 

The bud-sticks are usually all cut at one time and stored 
until they are used. It is thought by some nurserymen 
that bud-sticks which have been stored produce a larger 
percentage of buds that will grow. Stored bud-sticks pro- 
duce a greater percentage of uniform trees because the buds 
seem to mature in some way during storage. The bud- 
sticks are tied in bundles and either packed in damp sand, 
sawdust or damp moss until they are used. The damp moss 
or sawdust is preferred by most growers, because the sand 
has a tendency to dull the budding knife. The bud-sticks 
should have the leaves pruned off, leaving a little of the 
leaf stem to serve as a handle with which to hold the bud. 




Fig. 124. — The method of top working a citrus orchard. 



The budding of the citrus fruit is usually performed during 
November or December in those regions where a more or 
less definite winter occurs. This is called dormant budding. 
If any buds fail to grow from dormant budding or are killed 
back by the winter then spring budding is performed. Spring 
budding should be done after a vigorous growth has started. 
However, budding can usuall}^ be performed at any time 
of the year when the bark peels or separates easily from the 
wood. 



302 CITRUS FRUITS 

Soil. — The citrus fruits are very cosmopolitan with regard 
to soil. In California as well as in Florida and other citrus 
regions the citrus fruits are grown on a great variety of 
soils, ranging from light sandy soil through loams to black 
heavy, adobe soils. There are probably no other fruit trees 
which are so plastic and which will adapt themselves with 
such ease as to grow on almost any type of soil. The de- 
termining factor in the soil seems to be its physical con- 
dition and where this is good the citrus fruit is almost sure 
to grow on any soil. From the standpoint of cultivation 
and ease of handling the soft sandy loams should be pre- 
ferred over the sticky, heavier soils. 

The subsoil perhaps influences the growth of the citrus 
fruits to a greater extent than does the top soil. In many 
cases the layer of soil just below the top soil varies in thick- 
ness from a few inches to several feet. Sometimes this sub- 
soil is so hard and so firm as to be impervious to w^ater. 
Not only does it prevent the water from soaking away or 
rising from lower levels, but it is so hard that the roots of 
the plants cannot penetrate it. On such a soil the root 
development of the tree is greatly restricted. 

Sometimes the subsoil is too loose and open and unretentive 
of moisture. This condition gives a deficiency of plant 
food and a lack of water. 

A good soil then for the citrus tree may be of any type, 
but preferably a sandy loam which should be at least 4 or 
5 feet deep. It must be well drained and the subsoil should 
neither be too hard nor very loose. 

Cultivation. — Good preparation of the soil is essential if 
profitable crops are to be grown. The soil should be thor- 
oughly plowxd and worked into a very fine state before 
any trees are planted. After the trees are set, the soil 
should be plowed thoroughly once a year, preferably in 
March or April. At this time the cover crop should be 
turned under. The plowing should be completed before the 
tree comes into full bloom, in order to avoid the cutting 
of the roots at this critical time. The depth of plowing 
should vary with each year so as to prevent any hard layer 
from forming by the pressure of the plow. 



PLANTING 



303 



The proper cultivation determines the success of the 
orchard. It makes Uttle difference whether the trees are 
grown on irrigated land or on dry land, frequent cultiva- 
tions should be given to the soil. The soil should be stirred 
to a depth of about 4 inches after each irrigation or after 
each rain. No attempt should be made to cultivate until 
after the soil has dried out, or until it is in the proper condi- 
tion for cultivation. If the soil is cultivated when it is too 
wet it will be hard and lumpy. 




Fig. 125. — Protecting a young orange tree from the hot sun. 



The tillage implement should be selected with reference 
to the t}^e of soil. One type of soil will require one kind 
of a cultivator and another type of soil will need a different 
tool. 

Planting. — The planting of a citrus tree is similar to that 
of any other fruit tree. The general conditions concerning 
the preparation of the soil, the digging of the holes, etc., 
are identical to those of other fruits. 

The distance to set the trees is determined by the variety 
as well as by the fertility and the character of the soil. The 
smaller growing varieties such as the Mandarin oranges and 



304 CITRUS FRUITS 

the limes should not number more than 200 trees to the acre. 
This will mean that the trees should be set about 12 to 18 
feet apart. The larger growing varieties are usually planted 
farther apart. Usually about 100 trees to the acre is the 
proper niunber, which means the trees must stand in the 
neighborhood of 18 to 24 feet apart. 

Harvesting and Curing.- — The citrus fruits are harvested 
throughout the year. There is considerable difference 
observed in the picking and the packing of the different 
citrus fruits. Some fruits are picked while they are green 
and allowed to cure before they are shipped, while others 
are picked as soon as they are ripe and shipped at once. 
All citrus fruits must be handled with care, and precaution 
taken to see that thorns do not fall into the picking vessel. 
Such thorns or sharp twigs will scratch the skin of the fruit 
and damage it. 

In picking citrus fruit some precaution should be taken 
to see that no imperfect specimens are included in the 
package. The fruit must be separated from the tree by 
means of a clipper which cuts the stem off* close to the fruit. 
The picked fruit should be placed in baskets or crates. 
The fruit should be taken to the packing house with the 
greatest care and permitted to cure before it is fit to pack 
for shipment. After the fruit has been picked for some 
time the skin will toughen and the fruit will shrink, and 
then it can be handled with less danger of being injured. 
The curing time varies with the different citrus fruits and 
ranges from several days for the orange to several weeks for 
the lemon. After the fruit has cured properly it is graded 
and packed. 

The oranges are harvested throughout the year. The 
^^alencia are the summer oranges and they are har^'ested 
from June to November, while the Navel or winter oranges 
are picked from November to May. The seasons for both 
oranges somewhat overlap. 

The oranges should be picked with a great deal of care 
so that all bruises or cuts on the skin will be avoided. Any 
abrasion of the skin admits the germs of decay and the 
fruit is ruined. 



HARVESTING AND CURING 305 

The oranges in some cases must be colored or cured by 
sweating. The sweat-room is an air-tight, fire-proof room 
built separately from the main packing-house. The heat 
is provided by kerosene stoves which do not give complete 
combustion. The hot gases and water vapor fill the sweating 
room and envelop the fruit. The temperature is controlled 
by ventilators. In the sweating process the fruit is kept 
at a temperature of 100° F. The time of curing varies from 
three to five days or until the oranges are properly colored. 

The harvesting and the curing of the lemon differs greatly 
from that of the orange. The lemons are usually picked from 
ten to twelve times a year. The heaviest pickings of the 
lemon come in March and April, while the lightest pickings 
come in August and in September. This roughly divides 
the lemons into a fall and a spring crop. The summer crop 
is usually rushed to the market while the winter crop is held 
until later in the season. 

The method of picking the lemons from the tree is similar 
to that of the oranges. The chief difference between the 
two fruits is that the lemons are always picked by the use 
of a ring. The lemons are harvested while green and there- 
fore a ring is used to determine the size and maturity of the 
fruit. The picking rings are made of iron wire. The rings 
vary slightly in size and during the summer a ring 21 inches 
in diameter is used while during the winter a larger size, 
namely, 2f inches, in diameter is used. The larger ring is 
used in the winter because the fruit will be kept longer and 
a greater amount of shrinkage will take place. 

After the lemons reach the packing-house they must go 
through a curing process. The curing is done by subjecting 
the fruit to a sweating. The sweating of the lemons is for 
the purpose of quickly changing the green color to a light 
yellow color. 

The lemons should be sweated alternately for the best 
results. The air of the sweating-room should be kept satu- 
rated with moisture all the time. If the air is allowed to 
become dry the lemons shrivel quickly. The temperature 
of the sweating chamber should be held around 90° F. 

The winter lemons are usually stored and held for spring 
20 



306 



CITRUS FRUITS 



trade. Therefore the winter lemons are not treated in the 
same manner as the summer lemons. Instead of sweating 
the fruit and hastening the curing the lemons are prevented 
from sweating. As soon as the fruit is brought to the pack- 
ing-house it is washed in a very weak solution of copper 
sulphate. This solution is made by adding 1 pound of cop- 
per sulphate to 1000 gallons of water in the morning and J 




Fig. 126. — Showing the method of washing oranges to remove the sooty 
mould fungus. (Bulletin No. 123, United States Department of Agriculture, 
Bureau of Plant Industry.) 



pound at noon to keep the strength constant. The fruit 
is washed in this manner for disinfection against the brown 
rot. The lemons after being properly graded are placed 
loosely in packing boxes and stacked up on the storage floor. 
Lemons are often stored in this manner for six or seven 
months. 

Washing. — In most of the citrus-growing regions the 
fruit must be washed before it is shipped. If the fruit is 



PACKING 307 

grown on a healthy tree, free from diseases or scale insects, 
washing is not always necessary. The appearance of the 
fruit cannot be improved by washing unless it is grown 
where it is dry and windy and the fruit is covered with dust. 
If the fruit is affected with sooty mould which causes black 
spots it must be washed. 

The fruit is either washed by hand or by machine. Various 
machines have been invented for this work. A machine 
which gives good satisfaction is made with a series of brushes. 
The brushes are slightly larger than scrubbing brushes and 
are arranged on a chain belt. The fruit is placed on a chute 
and rolls into a vessel containing water. It is then made 
to circulate in this vessel between the brushes, and in this 
way is cleaned. There are several other washing machines, 
but all are constructed on the same general principles. 

Grading.— The citrus fruit cannot be packed as it comes 
from the orchard. It must first be graded. All fruits of 
one size should be sorted out and placed in a given bin. 
Most of the grading is done by machinery. Scattered 
along the belt which carries the fruit when it is graded are 
several men whose duty it is to take out all of the imperfect 
or defective fruits. The remainder are carried along the 
belt until they reach the opening of the proper size, where 
they fall through and are caught in a bin. This method 
of grading saves time and labor. The fruit of different sizes 
is collected in a separate bin and can then be packed in a 
uniform manner. 

The lemons are usually picked with a ring, which rnakes 
them approximately one size, and very little if any grading is 
necessary. The orange requires more grading perhaps than 
any other citrus fruit. 

Packing.— The citrus fruits are packed either by hand or 
by machinery. By far the greater percentage is packed by 
hand. Each fruit is placed in a given position in the box, 
and uniform packing has been developed to a high degree. 

The fruit is wrapped in paper. Sometimes a monogram 
or some other pleasing design is printed on the wrapping 
paper. 



308 CITRUS FRUITS 

The fruit is then packed in boxes and the number of 
fruit in each box is determined by the size of each specimen. 
The number is always the same for a given size. 

The oranges which are suitable for packing vary in size 
from 2| to 3^ inches. The orange crate measures approxi- 
mately 12 X 12 X 28 inches. This crate holds 360 specimens 
of the smallest size and only 80 of the largest size. 



Fig. 127. — The usual package for citrus fruit. 

The grape fruit is packed similar to that of the orange. 
The picking season for this fruit ranges from December 
until the following August. The fruit is ordinarily stored 
in boxes for several days, until the skin becomes soft. After 
the skin has reached the proper stage the fruit is wrapped 
in paper and packed in boxes the same as oranges. 

DISEASES OF THE CITRUS FRUITS. 

The citrus trees are susceptible to the attack of a number 
of diseases. The fungus diseases as wtII as the physiological 
troubles cause great loss to the citrus grower. In regions 
where the climate is moist the damage from fungus disease 
is greater than in regions where the climate is dry. The 
reverse is true with regard to the physiological troubles. 

The disease injury to the citrus tree is found on the root, 
the stem and the fruit, and in this respect resembles the 
injuries found on many of our temperate fruits. 

Gum Diseases. — The citrus fruits often secrete gum from 
many parts of the tree, due to a number of causes. It seems 
to be the direct result of certain forms of diseases, and gener- 
ally such troubles are classed as gum diseases. 



DISEASES OF THE CITRUS FRUIT 309 

The leaf gumming is very common, especially on the 
orange. It is more prevalent when the weather is very 
warm. The gum appears as little drops, usually on the 
undersides of the leaves. It is reddish brown in color. This 
trouble is not ver\' serious and should cause no uneasiness. 

The brown rot gumming is caused by the brown-rot fungus. 
It is most common on lemon trees. The greatest exudation 
of the gum usually occurs on the trunk of the tree close 
to the bud union.*^ This disease can be largely prevented 
by avoiding soil conditions which are the most favorable 
for the growth of the fungus. Do not allow water to stand 
around the tree or to come in contact with the trunk. 

Twig gumming is sometimes found on nursery stock. It 
is thought to be caused when the trees are copiously watered 
after they have dried out considerably. The gum is found 
on the twigs and causes the bark to split. The leaves usually 
drop and the twigs die. 

Rots.— Besides the gum diseases there are several rots 
which are injurious. The foot rot and the toadstool rot are 
the most important. In Florida the foot rot is well dis- 
tributed, but it is comparatively rare in the citrus belt of 
California. The root rot is the result of a fungus which 
causes the roots to rot. The affected roots soon become 
soft and slimy and the disease gradually spreads downward. 
The sour orange is the least susceptible to the attack of the 
fungus, and the disease is largely controlled by grafting on 
the sour orange stock. 

Toadstool Rot.— The toadstool rot is the result of a fungus 
growth. This fungus is native to the root of the oaks, but 
it has been able to flourish on the citrus trees, and it is caus- 
ing much damage. The disease usually kills the tree in 
three or four years, the afl'ected tree dying gradually. 
During a long, rainy season this fungus produces several 
clusters of brownish colored toadstools from the roots. 
It is from these toadstools produced as the fruiting bodies 
that the fungus take the name. At present there is no satis- 
factory remedy for this disease. 

Brown Rot.— The brown rot of the fruit causes great losses 
annually. The spores of this disease enter the fruit through 



310 CITRUS FRUITS 

the breathing pores, where they germinate and grow in the 
fruit. In a short time the fruit begins to decay and it soon 
develops the characteristic brown color. All of the citrus 
fruits are affected with this rot, but the lemons suffer the 
least from its attacks. The loss from this disease is the 
greatest during wet weather. The disease continues to 
spread rapidly in the packing house and often destroys whole 
boxes of fruit before it is detected. 

The brown rot can easily be controlled if the fruit is washed 
in water which contains copper sulphate at the rate of 1| 
pounds to 1000 gallons of water. 

Stem-end Rot. — ^The stem-end rot affects the stem of the 
fruit and causes it to drop. The dropping begins with the 
green fruits and continues through the entire season. The 
stem-end rot often causes the fruit to decay after it has 
reached the market. This disease is difficult to control, 
but the most successful method of control is to keep the tree 
carefully pruned and to remove and destroy all mummied 
fruit and dead twigs. 

Mould. — The blue and the green mould of the fruit causes 
great losses in the citrus industry* These moulds are only 
slightly parasitic on perfect fruits, and the decay is confined 
principally to those fruits which have been injured in handling. 
The moulds produce a soft rot and the spores appear as blue 
or green powder on the surface of the affected fruit. The 
loss from this disease can be largely prevented by the careful 
handling of the fruit. 

Several other less important diseases are found on the 
citrus fruit, and the reader is referred to some more extensive 
treatise of that subject should he desire more information 
concerning citrus diseases. 

INSECTS OF THE CITRUS FRUITS. 

The insects w^hich attack the citrus fruits are small in 
number, but they are very resistant to any control measures. 
They cause great financial loss annually. The scale insects 
are the most widely distributed and probably cause the 
greatest damage. 



INSECTS OF THE CITRUS FRUITS 



311 



The amount of the insect damage is largely controlled by 
the climate. In one region a certain insect pest will pre- 
dominate and do great damage while in another region a 
different insect will do the greatest damage. Each citrus 
region usually has some well-defined insect which may not 
be serious in any other region. 




Fig. 128. — An orange tree partly killed by the red scale. (After Quayle, 
California Agriculture Experiment Station.) 



The control and eradication of all citrus insects is based 
principally upon sanitation. All weeds should be destroyed. 
The fence rows should be clean and rubbish which harbors 
insects should be removed. Where perfect sanitation exists 



312 



CITRUS FRUITS 



and a systematic and a logical program of fumigation is 
practised no great amount of damage is caused by the insect 
pests. 

Scale Insects. — The scale insects which are troublesome, in 
almost every case, are foreign insects which have been intro- 
duced into this country through shipments of nursery stock 
and by other w^ays. Some of the scale insects not only 
damage the plants by sucking out the juices, but they secrete 
a sweet substance which gives a good medium for the grapth 
of certain moulds. 



^ 


^^ 


V:;c>a3ii^S^SSilS£TiSC;- .. i'pl^^^S^^^^M 


p 







Fig. 129. — Citrus trees covered with tents preparatory to fumigating 
them, taken at night when the operation is carried on. (After Quayle, 
California Agriculture Experiment Station.) 

The most practical means of control of the scale insects 
is by fumigating with hydrocyanic acid gas. Each insect 
varies in its power to withstand the gas and separate dosage 
tables have been worked out for each important scale insect. 
The success of this gas in controlling the scale insect is in 
its ease of generation and its exceedingly poisonous nature. 

The fumigation is done by the use of a tent placed over the 
tree. The tents are made of the best duck and vary in size 
from 20 to 36 feet for different sized trees. 

The cost of fumigating is about thirty cents for the aver- 
age-sized tree. 



INSECTS OF THE CITRUS FRUITS 313 

Thrip. — Besides the scale insects several others are inju- 
rious. The orange thrip is often troublesome and is found 
principally in the flowers of the citrus fruit. The presence 
of the thrip is usually first detected by the distorted and 
irregular growth of young leaves. 

The thrip injures the fruit by producing irregular scars 
around the stem and at other places over the surface. The 
damage done to the fruit does not injure the edible qualities, 
but it reduces the sale and places it in an inferior grade. 

The most effective remedy for the thrip recommended 
by the United States Department of Agriculture is 2i quarts 
of commercial lime sulphur at 22° Baume plus 3i fluid- 
ounces of a 40 per cent. Black Leaf extract to 30 gallons of 
water. This material should be sprayed on the trees with a 
force of 175 or 200 pounds pressure. 

Red Spider. — There are two species of red spider injurious 
to the citrus fruit. They are found throughout the citrus 
regions both in Florida and in California. 

The red spider is a small red insect which often becomes 
so abundant on a leaf as to give a reddish color to it. The 
best remedy for the red spider is sulphur. It is used in 
either the dry form or in the form of lime sulphur solution. 
When it is used dry the sulphur is dusted on the plant, 
usually when the foliage is a little damp. When lime sulphur 
is used the commercial product is diluted 1 gallon to 35 
gallons of water. The lime sulphur is becoming more popular 
and its cost is much less than fumigation. 

Whiteflies. — ^The whiteflies are serious pests to the citrus 
industry especially in Florida. In fact they are perhaps 
among the most destructive insect pests in that region. 
There are eight different species which may be found on 
citrus fruit in Florida. The common citrus whitefly, the 
woolly whitefly and the cloudy-winged whitefly are the 
three most important species, while the mulberry whitefly, 
guava whitefly, sweet potato whitefly, bay whitefly and the 
flocculent whitefly are found in this region but are of minor 
importance. 

The whiteflies are small insects, usually white in color, 
although some species have blotches on their wings which 



314 CITRUS FRUITS 

give tliem a cloudy appearance, while a few others have 
markings on their wings which produce a slight \^ariation 
and give a different appearance. 

The life histories of all of the whiteflies are very similar. 
These insects have complete metamorphoses, that is,* they 
pass through four stages in their development. 

The egg is small and nearly oval in outline. It is barely 
visible to the naked eye. The eggs are laid on the under side 
of the leaves of the plant and hatch in a few days into pale 
yellow larvae. The larvae crawl about for a few hours, usuall}^ 
on the underside of the leaves, and soon insert their beaks 
into the tissue, where they suck out the sap. They never 
move again, but continue to feed and grow rapidly, going 
through several molts until they reach the fourth larval 
stage, which differs from the larva of the other stages in 
being thicker, taking less food, and the organs of the adult 
fly begin to form. The insect passes through this last stage 
and emerges as an adult fly. The life as an adult is very 
short, in most cases only a few days. The females lay about 
a hundred eggs and then die. 

The whitefly can be held in check by spraying. Spraying 
with a combination of soap and oils will serve to control 
these insects. The original spray recommended by the 
Florida Agricultural Experiment Station is as follows : 

Whale oil soap 8 pounds 

Paraffin oil 2 gallons 

Water 1 gallon 

More recent experiments have demonstrated that by 
substituting other soaps which are cheaper, just as good 
results are obtained. The modified formula then is to sub- 
stitute two pounds of ordinary soap for the whale oil soap 
and then heat the material to the boiling-point and emulsify 
it by agitating it vigorously. This stock solution should 
be diluted before it is used. 

The number of sprayings that are necessary to control the 
whiteflies depends upon the weather and the location. The 
first spray should be given late in April or early in May. 
The best time seems to be when the bulk of the spring brood 



INSECTS OF THE CITRUS FRUITS 315 

of adults have disappeared. Several other sprayings are 
usually necessary and are determined by the location. The 
exact time to spray shoidd he determined by the flies and 
should be about two weeks after a great number of the 
adiilts have disappeared. Usually spraying must be done in 
late August and early September. This spray is considered 
the most important of the year. 

The whiteflies are also attacked by certain fungi. These 
fungi have proved very effective in holding the insects in 
check. When the summer rains begin, which is usually in 
June or July, an attempt should be made to introduce these 
fungi in the citrus grove which will operate as natural enemies 
for the control of the whitefly. 

Control of Insects.— The control measures for the citrus 
insects are different from the control measures for most 
other insects. This is made necessary because the trees 
have their leaves the entire season, and in the case of the 
scale insects, the insecticide effective in killing the scale 
would also destroy the foliage. In Florida where the white- 
flies are very destructive spraying with miscible oils has 
proved very effective in controlling these insects. However, 
owing to the different classes of insects as well as the fact 
that the trees are in foliage at the time control measures 
have to be practised, has led to another method which is 
largely practised in certain citrus regions, namely that of 
fumigation. 

About 1886 California first seriously considered fumiga- 
tion as a means of destroying injurious insects. As time 
passed the methods of fumigation were greatly improved 
but the fundamental principles remain the same. 

Fumigation is practised by covering the tree with a tent 
made of heavy duck. Under the tent the fumigating material 
is placed. Hydrocyanic acid gas is the material commonly 
used, and is made by depositing sodium or potassium cyanide 
in an earthen jar and covering it with sulphuric acid. The 
jars should be at least 2 gallons in capacity to prevent the 
acid from foaming up and spilling out. The amount of 
material which is used depends upon the size of the tree and 
the insect which is doing the damage. There are dosage 



316 CITRUS FRUITS 

tables worked out l)y the United States Department of 
Agriculture and the various state experiment stations, and 
these should be consulted for a more detailed study of 
fumigation. 

The fumigation gives better results and produces less 
injury to the foliage if it is done at night instead of in the 
daytime. 

The season of the year at which fumigating is done depends 
upon the life history of the insects and the condition of the 
tree. The fumigation should be carried on when the insects 
are in the most tender stage and can be easily killed, and 
the time will vary slightly for each insect. However, from 
August to January seems to be the time which gives the 
most satisfactory results. 

The dosages as well as the length of tune vary with the 
dift'erent scale insects. This phase can be learned in some 
more complete treatise on the subject. 

REVIEW QUESTIONS. 

1. Name the fruits included in the citrus class. 

2. Why is the citrus industry confined to certain special districts? 

3. How does the grape fruit differ from the orange? 

4. Discuss the propagation of the citrus fruit. What form of budding is 
used? 

5. What is the best type of soil for the citrus fruit? How does the sub- 
soil regulate the value of the top soil? 

6. Why is good cultivation essential? 

7. How should a citrus orchard be planted? 

8. Discuss the curing of citrus fruits. How does the curing of the orange 
differ from that of the lemon? 

9. What method of picking is used for the lemon? Why? 

10. How does the picking of the orange differ from that of the lemon? 

11. What is the value of washing citrus fruits? In what solution is the 
washing done? 

12. Discuss the grading of citrus fruits. 

13. Discuss the packing of the lemon, grape fruit and orange. 

14. Discuss the principal diseases and give the methods of control. 

15. What class of insects is the most injurious to the citrus fruit? Why? 

16. Discuss the fumigation of a citrus orchard. 

17. Why is fumigation used instead of spraying? 

18. When is the best time to fumigate? Why? 

19. What is the most destructive citrus insect in Florida? 

20. Give the life history of the whitefly. 

21. What method of control has proved the most effective with the 
whiteflies. 

22. Discuss the various ways of controlling the different diseases on the 
citrus fruit. 



CHAPTER XIX. 
BEAUTIFYING THE HOME GROUNDS. 

The beautifying of the home grounds is not appreciated 
as much in America as it rightfully deserves. For that 
reason it is hoped that a few pages relative to the improve- 
ment of the home surroundings will stimulate sufficient 
interest in this subject so that the average individual will 
attempt the improvement of his property by the judicious 
planning, and the planting of the home grounds. Why is it 
that so many beautiful residences are built and so little 
thought given to the grounds encircling them? Is it not true 
that the value of a property is largely determined by its 
location and its environment? Did you ever stop to think 
that by the expenditure of a few dollars for the purchase of 
shrubs and ornamental plants you will materially increase the 
value of your property? It is important, however, that the 
shrubs are placed in an artistic way, and it is hoped that 
Figs. 134 to 144 will aid in suggesting the correct loca- 
tions and the proper massing of the ornamentals in order 
to produce the best effects. The list of shrubs suggested 
include only a few of the better and most important orna- 
mentals. These are adapted for planting about the home, 
and it is hoped that this list will be used only as a guide. A 
reliable local nurserjman should also be consulted, because 
oftentimes different strains or varieties are much better 
adapted to certain local regions, and in such cases these 
varieties should be chosen. The list given is far from being 
complete and other shrubs which are known to be valuable 
can be added. 

Locating the House. — In locating a residence, whether it is 
on a small city lot or on a ten-acre tract, aim to set the house 
comparatively close to one side of the boundary and at the 



318 BEAUTIFYING THE HOME GROUNDS 

proper distance from the street or road. The distance the 
house can be located from the street is determined by the 
size of the lot, the city regulations and the local environment, 
all of which need consideration. Where the conditions 
make it possible never place the house closer than 30 feet 
from the front boundary. The location of the residence on 
the lot is not so rigidly assigned to a given place by city 
ordinances, and the individual can usually place it in the 
center or to one side without any restriction. To produce the 
most pleasing effects the owner should set the house close to 
one boundary line and a proportional distance back from 
the street. 

If the grounds are large the location of the buildings 
usually becomes more complicated because outbuildings are 
necessary. The buildings must be arranged so that the 
grouping will form a unit and placed so they will not cut up 
the grounds into separate pieces. If the house and other 
buildings are located near one side of the property a large open 
lawn will result on the opposite side and in the rear. This 
arrangement of the building will give open vistas and pleas- 
ing views from the main rooms. It will also give the impres- 
sion of increasing the extent of the lawn. On city or sub- 
urban lots the house should also be located nearer to one 
side of the lot and not set directly in the center. Such an 
arrangement does not permit the ground to be cut in half. It 
also gives a larger lawn, and the planting of the shrubs is 
much more effective if they are massed along the border, 
which leaves an open lawn between the house and one 
boundary. The house should be located so the larger por- 
tion of the grounds can be enjoyed from the principal rooms. 

Drainage. — The drainage of the soil is very important in 
the consideration of any property, and it either increases or 
decreases its value. The injurious effects of drainage are 
not only seen on the growing of plants, but poor drainage 
is unhealthy and is entirely unsuited to the development of 
both the lawn and the trees. It is therefore necessary to 
drain the land, whenever the location demands it, not only 
from the esthetic point of view but from the health con- 
siderations. There are many ways in which a piece of land 



ARRANGEMENT OF WALKS AND DRIVES 319 

can be drained, but space will not permit of a discussion of 
the various methods. In case any complicated conditions 
arise that cannot judiciously be handled by the owner an 
engineer or a drainage expert should be consulted. The best 
plan, however, is not to select a poorly drained piece of land 
on which to build a residence. The drainage will be largely 
determined b}^ the nature of the subsoil, and when you are 
selecting the building site due consideration should be given 
to the type of subsoil which underlies the top soil. If the 
subsoil is comparatively close to the surface and composed of 
heavy impervious material in the nature of a hard pan the 
drainage will be poor and in all probability the only relief 
will be to tile drain. If, on the other hand, the subsoil is com- 
paratively deep or is composed of loose material the drainage 
will be more perfect and will usually form an ideal site, so 
far as this phase is concerned. 




Fig. 130, — One method of laying out a curve. 

Arrangement of Walks and Drives. — On small city lots the 
walks and drives should be the shortest distance between the 
two points, namely, the outside walk and the door-step. 
Likewise it would be pure folly to construct an automobile 
drive in any other manner than to have it go directly from the 
street to the garage in a straight line. However, the method 
of constructing walks and drives differs when we consider 
the suburban home or the country place, and in these cases 
the walks and the roads must be viewed from a different 
aspect. 



320 



BEAUTIFYING THE HOME GROUNDS 



In a suburban home or a country estate it is always desir- 
able to locate the outbuildings at a place where they are not 
prominent and to connect them to the main highway with a 
road in which a graceful curve has been introduced. Easy 
flowing curves for the roads are not only permissible in such 
cases but are only recommended on such grounds that are 
amply large enough to accommodate this treatment. Curved 




Fig. 131. — A good method for measuring the opposite side of a curved road. 

walks and drives should be avoided on small city lots. Curves, 
no matter where they are introduced, should be easy and 
flow^ing wherever they are used. Abrupt angles and corners 
should be avoided. Whenever a road or a walk is made to 
curve some excuse must be apparent for the curve. The 
excuse for a curve usually takes the form of a tree or a group 
of shrubs massed in the proper places. 



I 



I 



Fig. 132. — The correct curve for a road 



walk. 



Treatment of Curved Walks or Drives. — As previously stated, 
when a walk or a drive is made to curve some excuse must 
be given for the existence of the curve, which is best done by 
the judicious grouping of shrubs or low evergreen trees. 



GROUPING AND MASSING OF SHRUBS 321 

When it is desired to prevent one curve from being visible 
from another, groups composed largely of evergreens should 
be selected and planted near the hollows of the curves. 
Massed plantings should never be placed at the extreme 
center of the curve but located on either side of it. To secure 
the best effects from this treatment the character and the 
outline of the grouping should be extremely different. 




Fig. 133. — Incorrect curve for a road or a walk. 

Grouping and Massing of Shrubs. — Rarely ever should a 
shrub be planted singly. Single planting in some instances 
is used, but the grouping of shrubs should be the common 
practice. Some skill and art is necessary in the judicious 
massing of shrubs, and some facts relative to the growth of 
the plants are necessary. The principal practice of the older 
landscape gardeners was to group the shrubs in such a w^ay 
that the taller growing plants always formed the extreme 
border and the smaller growing shrubs were placed in the 
front, so that a more or less uniform growth of foliage was the 
result. Rarely ever is this procedure excusable. Do we ever 
find such an arrangement of shrubs in nature? Consequently 
when it is desirable to have our places look natural, natural 
ways of planting should be used. Strive to group the plant- 
21 



322 



BEAUTIFYING THE HOME GROUNDS 



ing so that irregular lines are produced. Interplant shrubs 
of varying heights and do not place all tall-growing or all 




Fig. 134. — The proper way to group shrubs in the corner of a lot. 




Fig. 135. — The proper way to group shrubs in an angle. 

low-growing shrubs together, so that they produce distinct 
uniform lines of foliage. The tall- and the low-growing 



GROUPING AND MASSING OF SHRUBS 



323 



shrubs should be massed together. I do not mean that one 
plant should be alternated with another, but groups of one 
kind should be massed with groups of another kind. 




Fig. 130. — The proper way to mass shrubs in isolated groups. 

Single specimen plants have a place on large lawns, but 
w^hen they are used the individual plant should appear to be 
attached to a group of shrubs and placed at some little 




Fig. 137. — An unattractive residence due to the lack of shrubs. 



distance from the clump. The distance the single shrubs are 
located from the general mass should be gauged so that the 
specimen does not appear to be entirely distinct but to have 



324 



BEAUTIFYING THE HOME GROUNDS 



some connection with the larger group. The more prominent 
the projection of a mass of shrubbery the better it will be 
fitted for receiving a single specimen plant as an extension. 




Fig. 138. — ^A well-balanced planting. 

There are several well-defined places where shrubs and 
ornamental plants should be located to produce the best 




Fig. 139. — An attractive foundation made by planting annual plants. 



effect: (1) grouping or massing along the borders, (2) group- 
ing near the centers of curves in walks and roads, (3) group- 



THE LAWN 



325 



ing in the angle of two walks or roads, (4) planting along the 
foundations. 

The Lawn. — This chapter would not be considered complete 
without some mention of the lawn. A number of books have 
been written on this subject, telling how to make a lawn 
and how to maintain it in its best form, and for that reason 
only mere mention will be made here. However, a few 
statements are necessary. In the first place the soil should 
be well drained, and when it is possible a loam soil is to be 
preferred, but this is not essential. The land should be 
thoroughly manured, plowed and cultivated previous to 




Fig. 140. — A well-planted street. Note the uniformity due to community 

planting. 



seeding. All stones, pieces of wood, roots and stumps must 
be removed and a coating of well-rotted manure placed on 
top of the soil when it is possible. 

The next important thing to do is to select a good lawn 
grass. Various mixtures are on the market, but I believe 
better results can be obtained by making your own mixture 
and confining it to two or three grasses. In many localities 
perhaps one is sufficient. The Kentucky blue grass and the 
red top will make an ideal lawn in the great majority of 
cases if they are properly handled. Occasionally some other 
grasses must be used in certain regions. Seed heavily and 



326 BEAUTIFYING THE HOME GROUNDS 

from 4 to 6 bushels of seed to the acre, or about 1 bushel to 
7000 square feet, is not too much. Few people realize the 
importance of a thick stand in all parts of the lawn, and to 
have success you must show the seed thickly in order to keep 
out w^eeds and other wild grasses. The seed should be sown 
in two directions and at right angles to each other to ensure 
a uniform stand of grass. 

A lawn to be effective and beautiful should be kept mowed 
and clean shaven all of the time. A regular time must be 
chosen to cut the grass, and the length of the time between 
each cutting must be largely determined by the season of the 
year and the amount of rainfall. In the spring when the 
grass is growing fast it should be cut every week or ten days 
and the clippings allowed to remain on the lawn. The 
clippings fall between the blades of grass and form a mulch 
which aids in preventing evaporation as well as enriching the 
soil. As the season advances and the rainfall becomes less, 
the time between successive cuttings should be lengthened. 

Fig. 141 represents a tentative arrangement for the group- 
ing of a few ornamental plants on a city lot emphasizing the 
screen and foundation planting. The selection of varieties 
must necessarily vary in the different parts of the country, 
as well as in the different sections of the same country. 
Only plants suitable for foundation and for border planting 
should be selected. One or more varieties may be massed in 
groups, which should be determined by the individual doing 
the planting. In general the fewer the number of varieties 
the more satisfactory the result will be. 

This plan presupposes a garden in the rear, which is 
screened from view by a mass of shrubs at the boundary 
line. In selecting the plants for the grouping, some of the 
taller and more vigorous growers will be the most satisfactory 
for screening the undesirable portions. 

In selecting suitable shrubs consult the list of shrubs 
adapted to your location. More detailed and specific infor- 
mation regarding your local conditions can be secured by 
consulting some nurseryman or landscape gardener in your 
immediate vicinity. 



THE LAWN 



327 



Fig. 142 represents the grouping of ornamentals on a 
corner lot. This is designed to screen the garden, as well as 
to give privacy to the lawn. Foundation plantings are also 
emphasized. The garden or drying ground is screened from 



GARDEN 




Fig. 141. — A suggestive plan for the grouping of ornamentals on a city lot. 



328 



BEAUTIFYING THE HOME GROUNDS 



view by the use of the taller growing shrubs, while shrubs 
varying in height should be used in the border. The selection 



GARDEN 




Fig. 142. — A suggestive plan for the grouping of ornamentals on a city lot 
with two sides exposed to the street. 

of the shrubs to produce this effect can necessarily vary, and 
each individual should select those plants which are to his 
liking. As a rule better effects will be produced if a number 



THE LAWN 



329 




Fig. 143. — A suggestive plan for the grouping of ornamentals on a corner 
lot with two entrances and a garage. 



330 



BEAUTIFYING THE HOME GROUNDS 



of the same kind of shrubs are grouped together and not 
too many different kinds selected. 




THE LAWN 331 

Fig. 143 represents the planting of a lot where two sides 
are exposed and a residence that has a prominent entrance 
from two streets. This plan also introduces a garage and a 
drive leading to it. No garden or drying ground is provided. 
In this plan the shrubs are intended to screen the borders, 
and to effectively conceal the objectionable features con- 
nected with the garage. The open side lawn is screened so 
that privacy will result and where croquet or tennis can 
be indulged in for recreation. Foundation planting is in 
evidence and for this some of the smaller growing shrubs 
should be selected. The drive should be of cement or gravel 
and graded in such a way so as to provide good drainage. 

Fig. 144 illustrates a suggestive arrangement for an 
irregular piece of ground. This plan omits the garden and 
introduces a continuous drive through the grounds. The 
garage is practically concealed by plantings from all sides. 
The sharp corners are turned and rounded by the grouping 
of shrubs which give the open lawn graceful curves. Foun- 
dation planting is also used. The selection of the shrubs 
will necessarily vary, due to the location and the individual 
preference of the owner. 

REVIEW QUESTIONS. 

1. What determines the value of a piece of property? 

2. Why does the planting of shrubs improve the looks of a home? 

3. Where is the proper place to locate a house on a city lot? 

4. What principles are involved in locating a house? 

5. Why is it important that the ground should be well drained? 

6. Discuss the arrangement of walks and drives. 

7. Why should abrupt angles be avoided? 

8. How should curved walks and drives be treated? 

9. How should shrubs be planted? 

10. Is the single planting or the massing of shrubs the most effective? 
Why? 

11. When single plantings are used where should they be placed? 

12. Name the four well-defined locations where shrubs should be planted. 

13. Discuss the lawn. 

14. How often should it be moved? 

15. What is the value of regular moving of the lawn? 



332 



APPENDIX 



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APPENDIX 



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mDEX. 



A 



Aerial, layering, 87 
Agitator, 134 

Amount of seed to plant, 22 
Anthracnose on brambles, 218 

on bush fruits, 204 
Aphis on bush fruits, 205 

on cherry, 274 

on peach, 274 
Apple, cultivation and mulching of, 
241, 243 

diseases of, 247 

distance to plant, 240 

insects of, 250 

packing of, 245 

propagation of, 237 

pruning of, 243 

soil for planting of, 238 

systems of planting, 240 

varieties of, 246 
Arrangement of city garden, 29 

of plants, 20 

of walks and drives, 319 
Arsenate of lead formula, 138 
Asexual reproduction, 79 
Asparagus, 21, 22 
Automatic sprayer, 130 



B 



Bacteria, kinds of, 121 

multiphcation of, 121 
Bacterial action of soil influenced 

by cultivation, 74 
Bark graft, 106 
Barrel sprayer, 131 
Beans, 21, 22 

Beautifying the home grounds, 317 
Beets, 21, 22 



Bitter rot on apple, 247 
Black knot on cherry, 273 
on plum, 293 

rot on apple, 247 
on grape, 230, 231 
Blackberry, 21, 22 

cultivation of, 209 
Bordeaux mixture, 142, 144 
Brambles, 208 

diseases of, 217 

harvesting of, 216 

insects of, 218 

planting of, 213 

propagation of, 211 

soil and fertilizer for, 212 

systems of training, pruning of, 

varieties of, 217 
winter protection of, 216 
Bridge graft, 107 
Broker, the, 169 
Brown rot on apple, 247 
on cherry, 273 
on citrus fruits, 309 
on peach, 283 
Bucket spray, 129 
Bud, cutting of, 96 
plate, 98, 99 
shield, 96, 97 
Budding knife, 97 

time for, 95 
Bulb, 80 
Bush fruits, 196 

cultivation of, 199 • 
diseases of, 203 
harvesting of, 200 
insects of, 204 
planting of, 199 
propagation of, 197 
pruning of, 200 
soil for, 198 
varieties of, 202 

(347) 



348 



INDEX 



Cabbage, 21, 22 

worm, 112 
Cane blight, 218 

borer, 218 
Canker worm, 254 
Carbolic acid emulsion, 141 
Care of produce, 160 
Carrots, 21, 22 
Cauliflower, 21, 22 

in crates, 164 
Cause for pruning, 150 
Celery, 21, 22 
cabbage, 164 
crate, 162 
Chard, 21, 22 
Cherry, diseases of, 273 

harvesting and packing of, 272 
insects of, 274 

planting and cultivation of, 270 
propagation of, 267 
pruning of, 271 
soil for, 269 
varieties of, 272 
Cion, 101 
Citrus fruits, 298 
diseases of, 308 
grading and packing of, 307 
harvesting and curing of, 304 
insects of, 310 
planting of, 303 
propagation of, 300 
soil and cultivation of, 302 
washing of, 306 
City garden, 21, 22 
Cleft graft, 105 
CodHng moth, 250, 251 
Cold frame, 35, 55, 64 

cross-section of, 65 
Commission man, 169 
Companion planting, 24 
Composting manure, 62 
Contact poisons, 139 
Corm, 81 
Corn, 21, 22 
Corrosive sublimate, 145 
Cucumber, 21, 22 
Cultivation, 67 
of apple, 241 
of bush fruits, 199 
of cherry, 270 
of citrus fruits, 302 
of grape, 225 



Cultivation, objects of, 68 

of peach, 279 

of pear, 257 

of plum, 290 

of quince, 264 

shallow or deep, 69 

of strawberry, 186 
Cultivators, 76, 77 
Curculio on grape, 235 

on plum, 294, 295 
Currant, 21, 22 

types of, 196 

worms, 204 
Cuttings, 88, 90 

greenwood, 90 

hardwood, 92, 221 

heel, 222 

soft wood, 90 
Cylinders, 134 



Denitrification, 76 
Depth of planting, 48 
Dewberry, 209 

Dinner plate seed tester, 45, 46 
Disease of apples, 247 

bacterial, 120 

of brambles, 217 

of cherries, 273 

of citrus fruit, 308 

control of, 119 

fungous, 119 

of grapes, 230 

of peaches, 282 

of pears, 259 

of plums, 292 

of quinces, 265 

symptoms of, 117 
Disk harrow, 73 

Distance to plant perennial plants, 
21 
small fruits, 21 
vegetables, 21 
Double hedge row system, 186 
Downy mildew on grape, 232 
Drainage, 318 
Drive, arrangement of, 319 

treatment of, 320 



Effects of pruning, 151 
Eggplant, 21, 22 



INDEX 



349 



Embryo, 38 

Equilibrium of plant, 148 
disturbance of, 148 



Fall plowing, 72 

preparation of plants, 173 
Farm garden, 21 
Fertilizers, 23 
Fire blight on apple, 249 

on pear, 259 
Firming board, 49 
Flea beetle, 233 
Fly speck, 248 
FormaUn, formula of, 144 
Fumigation, 144 
Fungicides, 143 
Fungous disease, 119 
Fruit worm, 205 



Garden plans, 29, 30, 32, 33, 34, 35 

soil, preparation of, 23 
Geneva seed tester, 46 
Germinating cup, 46 
Germination, 38 

internal conditions affecting, 42 

oxygen necessary for, 40 

processes of, 42 

temperature necessary for, 41 

water necessary for, 38 
Germinative energy of seed, 44 
Gooseberry, 21, 22"^ 

classes of, 197 

pruning of, 200 
Grades, standardized, 166 
Grafting, 95, 99 

bark, 106 

bridge, 107 

cleft, 105, 106 

purpose and value of, 100 

saddle, 104 

splice, 102 

tongue, 102 

use of, 100 

waxes, formulas for, 110, 111 
Grape, 21, 22 

cultivation of, 225 

diseases of, 230 

fruit, 299 



Grape, harvesting and packing of, 
228 

insects of, 232 

planting of, 224 

propagation of, 220 

pruning of, 225 

soil for, 223 

training of, 226 

varieties of, 229 
Grapeberry moth, 234 
Greenwood cutting, 90, 91 
Gum diseases of citrus fruits, 308 
Gummosis on plum, 292 



Hand atomizer, 129 
Hardwood cuttings, 92 

storing and handling of, 92 
Harvesting, 159 

of apples, 244 

of brambles, 216 

of cherry, 272 

of citrus fruits, 304 

of grapes, 228 

of pears, 258 

of plum, 291 

of btrawberry, 188 
Hellebore, formula for, 138 
Herbaceous plants, winter care of, 

174 
Hill system, 184 
Horse cultivator, 76 
Horseradish, 21, 22 
Hot-bed, 35, 55 

advantages of, 55 

cross- section of, 58 

frame, 57 

location of, 56 

pit, 56 

depth of, 57 

plan, 61 

sash, 59 
How to remove large branches, 152 



Implements of cultivation, 76 

Insecticides, 137- 141, 143 

Insects, biting, boring, sucking, 113 
control measures of, 115 

Internal conditions affecting ger- 
mination, 42 



350 



INDEX 



Jobber, the, 170 



Kerosene emulsion, formula for, 

141 
Kumquat, 299 



Lawn, 325 
Layer, 84 
Layering, aerial, 87 

mound, 85 

serpentine, 87 

time for, 88 

tip, 86 

trench, 86, 87 
Laying out the garden, 17 
Leaf hopper on grape, 233 

roller on strawberry, 193 

spot on brambles, 217 
on bush fruits, 203 
on strawberry, 192 
Lemon, 299 
Lettuce, 21, 22 
Lime, 299 

commercial, 143 

self -boiled, 142 

sulphur, 138 

for summer spray, 143 

table for dilution for dormant 
spray, 139 
Little peach, 283 
Locating the house, 317 
Location of garden, 18 
Loganberry, 208, 211 
Long season crops, 20 
Longevity of seed, 43 



M 

Manure, 23 

composting of, 62 
Marketing, 159 

agencies, 169 
Matted row system, 186 
Maturity of seed, 42 



Melon, 21, 22 
Metamorphoses, complete, 113 

incomplete, 114 
Mildew on bush fruits, 204 

on grape, 231, 232 

on strawberry, 193 
Mould on citrus fruit, 310 
Mound layering, 84, 85 
Mulched plants, spring treatment 

of, 179 
Mulching of apple, 243 

of strawberry, 187, 188 

the soil, 178 
Mustard, 22 



N 



Nematodes, 194 
Nicotine products, 140 
Nitrification, 74 
Notching, 86 
Nozzles, 135 

Number of plants for small garden, 
22 



Onion, 21, 22 

in sacks, 163 
Orange, 298 
Oxygen necessary for germination, 

40 



Packages, kinds of, 161 

quality of, 165 
Packing of apples, 245 

of grapes, 228 

for market, 165 

of strawberry, 190 

supplies, 168 
Packs, standardized, 166 
Paris green, formula of, 138 
Parsley, 21, 22 
Peach, 275 

cultivation and pruning of, 279 

diseases of, 282 

harvesting of, 281 

insects of, 285 

leaf curl, 285 

planting of, 277 



INDEX 



351 



Peach, propagation of, 276 

soil, site for, 277 

tree borer, 285 

varieties, 282 

yellows, 282 
Pear blight, 259, 260 

cultivation of, 257 

diseases of, 259 

harvesting of, 258 

insects of, 261 

marketing of, 258 

planting of, 257 

propagation of, 256 

pruning of, 258 

psylla, 261 

scab, 261 

soil for, 257 

thrips, 262 

varieties, 259 
Peas, 21, 22 
Peg tooth harrow, 75 
Peppers, 21, 22 
Pests of plants, 112 
Physiological troubles, 123 

control of, 123 
Plans of gardens, 29, 30, 32, 33, 34, 
35 

for home grounds, 327-330 

of hotbed, 61 
Planning the home garden, 17 
Plant diseases, 117 

equilibrium of, 148 

louse on bush fruits, 205 
on cherry, 274 
on peach, 287 
Planting of brambles, 213 

companion, 24 

depth of, 48 

rotation, 24 

of strawberry, systems of, 184 

succession, 24 
Plants, thinning of, 51 
Plate bud, 98, 99 
Plowing, 72 
Plum, 287 

cultivation and thinning of, 290 

diseases of, 292 

insects of, 294 

propagation of, 288 

pruning and harvesting of, 291 

soil and planting of, 289 

varieties of, 292 
Plunger, 134 
Poisoned bait, 117 



Poisons for biting insects, 137 

for plant diseases, 141 

for sucking insects, 139 
Pome fruits, 237 

Position of vegetables in garden, 20 
Potatoes, 21, 22 
Powdery mildew on bush fruits, 204 

on grape, 231 
Power sprayer, 133 
Predaceous animals, 124 

control measure for, 124, 127 
Processes of germination, 42 
Procumbent stems, 82 
Produce, care of, 160 

grading of, 161 

preparing of, for market, 163 
Propagation, 79 

of apples, 237 

of brambles, 211 

by bulbs, 80 

of bush fruits, 197 

of cherry, 267 

of citrus fruits, 300 

by corms, 81 

by cuttings, 88 

of grapes, 220 

by layers, 84 

of peach, 276 

of plum, 288 

of quince, 264 

by rhizomes, 81 

by runners, 83 

by stolons, 83 

of strawberries, 182 

by tubers, 82 
Protection of wounds, 149 
Prune, time to, 148 
Pruning of apple, 243 

of bearing trees, 155 

of black raspberry, 210 

of brambles, 215 

of bush fruits, 200 

cause for, 150 

of cherry, 271 

effects of, 151 

of gooseberry, 201 

of old trees, 156 

of peach, 279, 280 

of pear, 258 

of plum, 291 

principles of, 147 

roots of plants, 153 

saws, knives, 149, 150 

summer, winter, 153 



352 



INDEX 



Pruning tools, 149, 150 

top of plants, 142 

of young trees, 154 
Pyrethrum, formula for, 138 



Quince, cultivation of, 264 
diseases of, 265 
insects of, 265 
propagation of, 264 
pruning of, 265 
soil for, 264 



Radish, 21, 22 

in Delaware basket, 163 
Raspberry, 21, 22 

cultivation of, 208, 209 
Red spider, 313 
Regulation of water, 39 
Repellents, 116 
Retailer, the, 170 
Review questions, 36, 53, 65, 77, 94, 

111, 128, 146, 158, 172, 181, 195, 

206, 219, 235, 266, 297, 316, 331 
Rhizomes, 81 
Rhubarb, 21, 22 
Riding cultivator, 77 
Ringing, 36 
Root cutting, 90 

graft, 104 
Rose, winter care of, 176, 177 
Rotation planting, 24 
Runner, 83 



S 



Saddle graft, 104 

San Jos6 scale on apple, 252-254 

on peach, 187 
Sash, 59 

Scab on apple, 248 
on pear, 261 
on plum, 294 
Scale insects on apple, 252 
on citrus fruits, 312 
on peach, 287 
Seed-bed, soil for, 47 



Seed, germinative energy of, 44 

its needs, 38 

longevity of, 43 

maturity of, 42 

pot, 39 

soundness of, 43 

sowing of, 50 

tester, kinds of, 45 
dinner plate, 46 
Geneva, 46 

testing, 44 

treatment, 145 
Seedlings, transplan tings of, 52 

watering of, 50 
Self-boiled Hme sulphur, 142 
Selling associations, 170 
Semi-hardwood cuttings, 93 
Serpentine layering, 87 
Sexual reproduction, 80 
Shield bud, 96, 97 
Short season crops, 20 
Shot hole disease on cherry, 274 
Shrubs, grouping and massing of, 

321 
Single hedge row system, 185 
Size of garden, 19 
Slug on cherry, 275 
Soap formula, 140 
Softwood cutting, 90 

methods of handling, 93 
Soil, compacting of, 49 

mulching of, 178 

sanitation of, 122 

thermometer for, 64 

water-holding capacity of, influ- 
enced by cultivation, 70 
Sooty blotch, 248 
Spinach, 22 

in Delaware basket, 163 
Splice graft, 102 
Spray gun, 136 

machine parts, 134-136 

machinery, 129 

materials, 136-146 

nozzles, 135 

rod, 136 
Sprayers, automatic, 130 

barrel, 131 

kinds of, 129 

power, 128 

twin cylinder, 132 
Spraying outline for apple, 256 
for brambles, 219 
for cherry, 275 



INDEX 



353 



Spraying outline for currants and 
gooseberries, 206 
for grape, 235 
for peach, 287 
for pear, 264 
for plum, 296 
for quince, 265 
for strawberries, 195 
Spring plowing, 72 
tooth harrow, 74 
Squash, 21, 22 

bug, 113 
Standardized grades and packs, 166 
Stem cutting, 90 

end rot of citrus fruits, 310 
Stock, 102 
Stolon, 83 
Stone fruits, 267 
Storing hardwood cuttings, 92 
Strawberry, 21, 22 
bed, renewal of, 182 

soil for, 183 
cultivation of, 186 
diseases, leaf spot, 192 

mildew, 193 
harvesting of, 188 
insects, leaf roller, 193 

weevil, 194 
mulching of, 187, 188 
packing of, 190 
planting of, 184 
propagation of, 182 
varieties of, 191 
Suburban garden, 20, 21 
Succession planting, 24 
Summer pruning, 153 

sprays, formulas for, 143, 144 
Supply tank, 135 
Sweet potato, 22 

System of planting orcliard fruits, 
240 
hexagonal, 241, 242 
quincunx, 241, 242 
square system, 240, 241 



Temperature necessary for ger- 
mination, 41 

maximum, 41 

minimum, 41 

optimum, 41 
Tent caterpillar, 255 



Thinning of plants, 51, 52 
Thrip on citrus fruits, 313 
Tile germinator, 46 
Tillage, 68 
Time for layering, 88 

to plant, 49 
Tip layering, 86 
Toadstool rot, 309 
Tobacco, 141 
Tomato, 21, 22 

disease of, 118 
Tongue graft, 102, 103 
Tongueing, 86 
Tools, budding, 97 

pruning, 149, 150 
Top working, 108 

of citrus orchard, 3C1 
Training of brambles, 214 

of grapes, 226 
Transportation, 171 
Tree protectors, 125-127 
Trellises, 227 
Trench layering, 86 
Tuber, 82 

cutting, 88, 89 
Twin cylinder sprayer, 132 



Unit of measure, 18 



Valves, valve seats, 134 
Varieties of apples, 246 

of brambles, 217 

of bush fruits, 202 

of cherries, 272 

of grapes, 229 

of peaches, 282 

of pears, 259 

of plums, 292 

of quinces, 265 

of strawberries, 191 
Vegetables grown for foliage, 27 
for fruit, 27 
for roots, 26 
for seed, 27 
Vegetative reproduction, 79 



354 



INDEX 



W 

Walks, arrangement of, 319 

treatment of, 320 
Water, bottom, capillary, 70 

hygroscopic, 71 

regulation of, 39 
Waxes, grafting, 110, 111 
Weevil, 194 



Whitcflies, 313 

spraying for, 314 
Windbreaks, 19 

Winter care of bulbs and roots, 
180 

killing, 174 

protection of plants, 173 

pruning, 154 
Woody plants, winter care of, 175 



